Spontaneous non‐verbal counting in toddlers

A wealth of studies have investigated numerical abilities in infants and in children aged 3 or above, but research on pre‐counting toddlers is sparse. Here we devised a novel version of an imitation task that was previously used to assess spontaneous focusing on numerosity (i.e. the predisposition to grasp numerical properties of the environment) to assess whether pre‐counters would spontaneously deploy sequential (item‐by‐item) enumeration and whether this ability would rely on the object tracking system (OTS) or on the approximate number system (ANS). Two‐and‐a‐half‐year‐olds watched the experimenter performing one‐by‐one insertion of ‘food tokens’ into an opaque animal puppet and then were asked to imitate the puppet‐feeding behavior. The number of tokens varied between 1 and 6 and each numerosity was presented many times to obtain a distribution of responses during imitation. Many children demonstrated attention to the numerosity of the food tokens despite the lack of any explicit cueing to the number dimension. Most notably, the response distributions centered on the target numerosities and showed the classic variability signature that is attributed to the ANS. These results are consistent with previous studies on sequential enumeration in non‐human primates and suggest that pre‐counting children are capable of sequentially updating the numerosity of non‐visible sets through additive operations and hold it in memory for reproducing the observed behavior.     

Evidence suggests vocal production learning in a cross-fostered Risso’s dolphin (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Grampus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">griseus</Emphasis>)

Vocal learning is a rare skill in mammals, and we have limited information about the contexts in which they use it. Previous studies suggested that cetaceans in general are skilled at imitating sounds, but only few species have been studied to date. To expand this investigation to another species and to investigate the possible influence of the social environment on vocal learning, we studied the whistle repertoire of a female Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus) that was stranded at an early age and was subsequently raised in a group of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). We show that this cross-fostered animal produced vocal signals more akin to those of its Tursiops poolmates than those of Risso’s dolphins in the wild. This is one of very few systematic cross-fostering studies in cetaceans and the first to suggest vocal production learning in the Risso’s dolphin. Our findings also suggest that social experience is a major factor in the development of the vocal repertoire in this species.     

Forcing your luck: Goal-striving behavior in chance situations

Previous research suggests that desired end-states (i.e., goals) initiate a set of motivational processes supporting goal-attainment. For example, motivational intensity (e.g., effort investment) increases as distance to the goal decreases. The present studies investigate whether this goal-gradient can also be observed in chance determined situations, situations in which there is a desired end-state (i.e., winning) but in which increased effort investment does not support goal-attainment. Three studies provide consistent evidence for the goal-gradient in chance determined situations. We show that participants (in the lab and in a TV game show) invest more effort into goal-directed behavior the closer they get to the end of the game. The moderation of expectancy and value was, however, modest. Interestingly, participants’ self-reports suggest that their dynamic changes in behavior were unintentional and perceived as non-instrumental. Findings are related to theories of goal pursuit and illusory control, and contrasted to the principle of resource conservation, according to which such behavior should not occur.     

When Living and Working Well Together in Organizations Changes Into Good Social Coexistence: The Talent Club Case

In our contemporary age, where a combination of individualism and mutual distrust is unhappily common among people and society is “liquid” and disoriented, so-called intermediate units (groups, associations) are a precious resource that promotes positive coexistence within organizations and in local communities, too. The present contribution describes an example of such an intermediate unit, the Talent Club, located in a peripheral neighborhood of a metropolitan area in northern Italy. This case study shows the development of positive living and working together in organizations and their transformation in the tool for community development and good coexistence. Qualitative and quantitative data show that the relational aspect is crucial because it promotes authentic exchange among people, supporting participation and social cohesion against self-referential habits and isolation. Although at present the Talent Club is mostly functioning in a affiliating coexistence among members, seeds of a more generative coexistence are clearly detectable.     

Living in a Non‐Communist Versus in a Post‐Communist European Country Moderates the Relation Between Conservative Values and Political Orientation: A Multilevel Study

We performed a multilevel, multinational analysis using the 2012 European Social Survey dataset (N = 41 080, nested in 20 countries) to study how living in a non‐communist versus in a post‐communist country moderates the link between individual conservative values (drawn on Schwartz's theory of basic human values) and political orientation (assessed as self‐placement on the left–right axis and attitude towards economic redistribution). The results supported the moderating role of living in a non‐communist versus in a post‐communist country in the case both of political self‐placement and of attitude towards economic redistribution, even controlling for the countries' degree of individualism, power distance and democracy. Specifically, conservative values were positively related to a rightist political self‐placement among participants living in countries without a communist past, and to a favourable attitude towards economic redistribution in countries with a communist past. The limitations, implications and future directions of this study are discussed. Copyright © 2016 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Self-efficacy,planning, and preparatory behaviours as joint predictors of physical activity: A conditional process analysis

Objective: Planning can bridge the gap between intentions and action, but what bridges the gap between planning and action? This study helps to answer the question by disentangling the interrelationships between self-efficacy, planning and preparatory behaviours in predicting physical activity. Preparatory behaviours are tested as a working mechanism of planning. Moreover, it is tested whether the utility of preparatory behaviours depends on an individual’s level of self-efficacy.

Methods: A survey assessed planning, self-efficacy and preparatory behaviours for physical activity. Adults (N = 166) provided data at two measurement points. In a longitudinal model, preparatory behaviours were specified as a mediator between planning and physical activity. Self-efficacy was specified as a possible moderator at two points in the model.

Results: Preparatory behaviours mediated the relationship between planning and physical activity. An interaction between self-efficacy and preparatory behaviours on physical activity was found, indicating that individuals with low self-efficacy beliefs were more active if they engaged more frequently in preparatory behaviours.

Conclusion: Planning seems to stimulate preparatory behaviours, which in turn make future physical activity more likely. Furthermore, as performing preparatory behaviours represent a step forward towards the enactment of behavioural goals, preparatory behaviours may be particular beneficial for individuals afflicted by self-doubts regarding physical activity.     

Altered Cortico-Limbic Functional Connectivity During an Empathy Task in Subjects with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Empathy is a multidimensional construct consisting of cognitive (inferring mental states) and emotional (empathic concern) components. Emotional empathy is severely impaired in individuals affected by Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Here, we investigated the neural correlates of such an emotional empathy dysfunction to shed light on the neural circuitry responsible for the social and emotional dysfunction in PTSD. We asked a group of PTSD and a group of healthy controls to solve a Multifaceted Empathy Test, measuring both cognitive and emotional empathy, and investigated the functional connectivity of the cortical areas involved in solving the test. The results revealed that, in healthy individuals, increased neural activity in the frontal cortex modulates activity in the insula while subjects perform the emotional empathy task; whereas, in individuals affected by PTSD, increased activity in limbic regions such the insula and the amygdala modulates activity in the frontal cortex while performing the emotional empathy task. These findings suggest that the lack of cortical top-down control of the frontal cortex on the limbic system in PTSD during empathic processing may explain the emotional and social difficulties experienced by individuals suffering from PTSD.     

Academic self-regulation as a function of age: the mediating role of autonomy support and differentiation in school

Numerous studies in the tradition of the self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan in Can Psychol 49(1):14–23, 2008) point out the significance of self-determined academic motivation and its relevance for learning processes and well-being. Whereas these results sketch a rather heterogeneous picture of the development of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, only a limited amount of research results are dedicated to the development of academic self-regulation. This cross-sectional research is based on the data of 432 pupils aged 6–20 from primary to secondary school. With the aid of questionnaires, participants provided information concerning their academic self-regulation and how much autonomy support and differentiation they perceive in school. The results of cluster analysis and structural equation modelling indicated that age is negatively related to academic self-regulation, while intrinsic and (rather) controlled regulation decreased the older the pupils are. The values for rather self-determined regulation remained comparatively stable. In addition, the longer pupils attended school, the less they reported perceived autonomy support and differentiation. Perceived autonomy support had an impact on intrinsic and rather self-determined regulation but not on controlled regulation, whereas perceived differentiation was not related to academic self-regulation. These findings offer novel explanations why settings in schools—especially in secondary schools—can become less suitable for learners (Eccles and Roeser in Handbook of adolescent psychology, Wiley, Hoboken, pp 404–434, 2009) and how they can assist educators in designing autonomous learning environments that contribute to maintaining and developing intrinsic and self-determined academic regulation strategies.     

Psychiatric Disorders and Childhood Parental Loss in Obesity: Relationship with the Mode of Weight Gain

We assessed the association between psychiatric disorders, childhood parental loss, and weight gain mode in 150 obese patients seeking bariatric surgery and with a history of sudden or gradual weight gain mode. Subjects with sudden weight gain mode (47%) showed significantly higher bipolar II disorder (p < .001), childhood parental death (p < .01), and separation (p < .01), but lower pure hypomania (p < .001) prevalence than subjects with gradual weight gain mode. We found preliminary evidence that lifetime bipolar spectrum disorders and childhood parental loss may influence weight gain mode in obese subjects. These findings may contribute to predict patients’ weight trajectories and implement preventive interventions.