Examination of relationships among trait-like individual differences, state-like individual differences, and learning performance

Several authors (e.g., J.T. Austin & H.J. Klein, 1996; R. Kanfer, 1990b, 1992) have urged researchers to examine comprehensive models of distal individual differences as predictors of proximal motivational processes and performance. Two field studies in an academic setting tested a model of relationships among trait-like individual differences (cognitive ability, general self-efficacy, and goal orientation), state-like individual differences (state anxiety, task-specific self-efficacy, and goals), and learning performance. Most hypothesized relationships among these constructs received support when tested on 2 samples, when examining different performance episodes, and when using different goal orientation and state-anxiety measures. In general, state-like individual differences were found to mediate the relationships between trait-like individual differences and learning performance. Implications of these results are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided.     

The effect of jury deliberations on jurors' propensity to disregard inadmissible evidence

The goal of this research was to examine the effect of jury deliberations on juror's propensity to disregard inadmissible evidence. Extant research is inconclusive; some research indicates that jurors do follow judicial instructions to ignore inadmissible evidence, but other research suggests that jurors do not. Two experiments examined whether jurors were affected by inadmissible evidence. The results revealed that although mock jurors were biased by inadmissible evidence prior to deliberations, the bias was tempered following deliberations. In Experiment 1, post deliberation jurors disregarded incriminating evidence that was ruled inadmissible because of due-process concerns. Experiment 2 replicated these results with less incriminating inadmissible evidence and also revealed that jurors did not accurately gauge the impact that the inadmissible evidence had on their verdicts. Theoretical and judicial policy implications are discussed.     

Reexamining the circumplex model of affect

The circumplex model of affect has been among the most widely studied representations of affect. Despite the considerable evidence cited in support of it, methods typically used to evaluate the model have substantial limitations. In this article, the authors attempt to correct past limitations by using a covariance structure model specifically designed to assess circumplex structure. This model was fit to 47 individual correlation matrices from published data sets. Analyses revealed that model fit was typically acceptable and that opposing affective states usually demonstrated strong negative correlations with one another. However, analyses also indicated substantial variability in both model fit and correlations among opposing affective states and suggested several characteristics of studies that partially accounted for this variability. Detailed examination of the locations of affective states for 10 of the correlation matrices with relatively optimal characteristics provided mixed support for the model.     

Invisible support and adjustment to stress

Although there is abundant evidence that perceived availability of support buffers the effects of stressors on mental health, the relatively meager research on support transactions has failed to show an association between actual receipt of support and adjustment to stressors. The authors examined a possible explanation for this inconsistency, that awareness of receiving support entails an emotional cost and that the most effective support is unnoticed by the recipient. Using data from a daily diary study of support provision and receipt in couples, the authors show that many transactions reported by supporters are not reported by recipients. They also show that these invisible support transactions promote adjustment to a major stressor.     

A safe haven: an attachment theory perspective on support seeking and caregiving in intimate relationships

This study used an attachment theoretical framework to investigate support-seeking and caregiving processes in intimate relationships. Dating couples (N = 93) were videotaped while one member of the couple (support seeker) disclosed a personal problem to his or her partner (caregiver). Results indicated that when support seekers rated their problem as more stressful, they engaged in more direct support-seeking behavior, which led their partners to respond with more helpful forms of caregiving. Responsive caregiving then led seekers to feel cared for and to experience improved mood. Evidence for individual differences was also obtained: Avoidant attachment predicted ineffective support seeking, and anxious attachment predicted poor caregiving. Finally, couples in better functioning relationships engaged in more supportive interactions, and participants' perceptions of their interaction were biased by relationship quality and attachment style.     

Minimizing error in measurement of error: a proposed method for calculation of error in a two-dimensional motor task

Traditional one-dimensional error scores are still consistently used in research on motor learning to quantify two-dimensional error; however, the inherent differences in two-dimensional tasks render that application inappropriate and often misleading. Consequently, the purpose of this paper was to propose a novel method of presenting errors, which more precisely represents the accuracy, direction, and variability of error in two-dimensional settings. Although closely related to several alternatives for representing errors, the methodology used and the results obtained provide a more accurate procedure for pinpointing critical trends in what have been commonly referred to as AE (absolute error), VE (variable error), CE (constant error), and E (total variability). The proposed measurements of AVE (adjusted variable error), DE (directional error), TSE (total spread of error), and RE (radial error) provide composite error scores carrying a variety of information about performance on two-dimensional tasks. Formulas and examples are provided to facilitate computation and enhance understanding of the proposed scores.     

Emotion space as a predictor of binocular rivalry

In our 1999 report, we examined robustness of a two-dimensional structure of facial expressions of emotion under the condition of some perceptual ambiguity, using a stereo-scope. The current study aimed to replicate and extend the previous work by adding facial photographs of different persons and by measuring participants' perception of stereoscopically presented faces. Multidimensional scaling provided a two-dimensional configuration of facial expressions comparable with the previous studies. Although binocular rivalry was a less frequent phenomenon, it was suggested that the distances between facial expressions in the derived space were a contributing factor in eliciting binocular rivalry.     

Human movement-related brain potentials preceding voluntary movements in different arousal states monitored with skin potential level

The present study investigated the readiness potential (RP) preceding a brisk extension of the right middle finger during different arousal states as monitored by skin potential level (SPL). The late component of the readiness potential in the medium arousal state was significantly larger than those in the low and high arousal states. This finding indicates that the RP waveform may vary as a function of arousal states, suggesting the inverse U-shaped relationship proposed in studies of the contingent negative variation.     

Change in perceived spatial directions due to context

We examined the influence of context on exocentric pointing. In a virtual three-dimensional set-up, we asked our subjects to aim a pointer toward a target in two conditions. The target and the pointer were visible alone, or they were visible with planes through each of them. The planes consisted of a regular grid of horizontal and vertical lines. The presence of the planes had a significant influence on the indicated direction. These changes in indicated direction depended systematically on the orientation of the planes relative to the subject and on the angle between the planes. When the orientation of the (perpendicular) planes varied from asymmetrical to symmetrical to the frontoparallel plane, the indicated direction varied over a range of 15 degrees--from a slightly larger slant to a smaller slant--as compared with the condition without the contextual planes. When the dihedral angle between the two planes varied from 90 degrees to 40 degrees, the indicated direction varied over a range of less than 5 degrees: A smaller angle led to a slightly larger slant. The standard deviations in the indicated directions (about 3 degrees) did not change systematically. The additional structure provided by the planes did not lead to more consistent pointing. The systematic changes in the indicated direction contradict all theories that assume that the perceived distance between any two given points is independent of whatever else is present in the visual field--that is, they contradict all theories of visual space that assume that its geometry is independent of its contents (e.g., Gilinsky, 1951; Luneburg, 1947; Wagner, 1985).