计算机和形而上学

什么是形而上学我要使用的方法是起源于古代而今天仍为人们所使用的方法,也就是给出一些实例,再从中抽象得出一般的原理。让我们以罗马诗人卢克莱修的形而上学为例,他借用了古希腊原子论者的观点。卢克莱修认为,基本的实体是由原子和虚空或空间所组成的。原子是坚硬的,小到我们看不见它,它们在空无的空间中运动并且保持不变。     

苏格拉底的反证法简论

我这里所讲的苏格拉底,是柏拉图早期对话中的苏格拉底。依我看来,柏拉图在对话中重建了这个历史人物的哲学方法和哲学学说。这里,我将着重谈谈我认为是苏格拉底从事哲学研究的主要方法,我把它称之为“标准反证法”。这个名称有别于R.鲁滨逊等人的“间接反证法”。他们之所以称它为“间接反证法”,是因为在反证时,驳斥的论点可能被用作对此论点进行反驳的前提。在这里,苏格拉底不受所提出之前提真理性的束缚,而由它推出     

论概念

1.知识分为(a)普遍承认的概念(太阳、月亮、智慧、灵魂)和(b)有待证明的概念(例如确证宇宙是由包含在另一球体中的球面组成的;或者是在时间中被创造的)。每个概念都必定有一个更普遍的概念在它之前存在着。但是,那个概念的最终建立却无需和在它之先的概念相关联。必然的存在和可能的存在就是这样的概念。这样的概念无需人们去构想一个包含着它们的东西,它们本身就是清楚、明白的自明概     

唯心主义和宗教的相似与区别

在阶级社会里,宗教和哲学唯心主义之间的相似和密切联系,是毋庸置疑的。无论是宗教还是哲学唯心主义,都是对世界的一种不正确的看法,都是一种错误的、歪曲的、颠倒的世界观。宗教和哲学唯心主义都反映这些和那些阶级的利益,它们过去和现在多半是阶级社会里的思想斗争中的同盟军。以上这些观点都是下述看法的依据,即在我们的文献里,充分而又广泛地提到宗教和哲学唯心主义是一些不同的现象,但就其本质来说,又是同一     

A temporal limit on the effect of future food on current performance in an analogue of foraging and welfare

Rats obtained access to food twice each 24-hour period. The first session was a work session in which food was available on a progressive-ratio schedule. During the second session, which occurred between 1 and 23 hours after the work session, food was freely available up to a fixed total intake each 24 hours. The situation resembled elements of several real world circumstances, including the choice between continuing to forage in a rapidly depleting patch and waiting for a better patch, and between working now and receiving a guaranteed income later. The purpose of the experiment was to explore the time period over which future access to reward could affect current responding. Contrary to what might be expected from recent theorizing, anticipation of future food delayed by an hour or more after the start of the work session had no effect on current performance. Food intake was high and constant during work sessions except for a prefeeding effect that occurred when the free session closely preceded the next day's work session. Also, an increase in the difficulty of the work schedule increased the amount of work and the maximum price paid for food as if the work session were the only time food was available. The results indicate the importance of considering temporal limits in theories that require animals to integrate input over time to determine the allocation of resources among alternatives.     

Behavior regulation and learned performance: Some misapprehensions and disagreements

The behavior-regulation approach to learned performance has been the subject of misapprehension and disagreement concerning: (1) the nature and importance of behavior regulation, (2) the definition and role of behavioral set-points, (3) the relation of optimal schedule performance to behavioral set-points, and (4) the question of whether deviations from total responding or from response patterns are the primary determinant of molar responding under schedule constraint. After clarifying the nature and role of behavior regulation and set-points, this paper shows that the data used to question optimal schedule performance (Allison, 1981a) actually strongly support the general behavior-regulation approach. These data also indicate a role for response-pattern set-points in determining schedule behavior, but contradict the hypothesis that deviations from response-pattern characteristics are the primary determinant of molar schedule effects.     

幼儿不同情绪状态对其智力操作的影响

本实验结果显示:1)在16至18个月的婴儿中,愉快和痛苦情绪对其问题解决的操作有不同的影响。愉快组被试比痛苦组被试的操作效果明显优越;体现在“直接抓取”、“注视”和“顺利获得”三种操作策略中。2)愉快和痛苦两种情绪的不同强度与操作效果之间的相关是不同的。愉快组显示为一种曲线相关,即过高或过低的情绪唤醒不如适中的唤醒水平使操作效果达到最优。痛苦组显示为一种直线相关,即痛苦强度越大,操作效果越差。     

Changing the response unit from a single peck to a fixed number of pecks in fixed-interval schedules

Each of three pigeons was studied first under a standard fixed-interval schedule. With the fixed interval held constant, the schedule was changed to a second-order schedule in which the response unit was the behavior on a small fixed-ratio schedule (first a fixed-ratio 10 and then a fixed-ratio 20 schedule). That is, every completion of the fixed-ratio schedule produced a 0.7-sec darkening of the key and reset the response count to zero for the next ratio. The first fixed-ratio completed after the fixed-interval schedule elapsed produced the 0.7-sec blackout followed immediately by food. These manipulations were carried out under two different fixed-interval durations for each bird ranging from 3 min to 12 min. The standard fixed-interval schedules produced the typical pause after reinforcement followed by responding at a moderate rate until the next reinforcement. The second-order schedules also engendered a pause after reinforcement, but responding occurred in bursts separated by brief pauses after each blackout. For a particular fixed-interval duration, post-reinforcement pauses increased slightly as the number of pecks in the response unit increased despite large differences in the rate and pattern of key pecking. Post-reinforcement pause increased with the fixed-interval duration under all response units. These data confirm that the allocation of time between pausing and responding is relatively independent of the rate and topography of responding after the pause.