Lexical selection is not by competition: a reinterpretation of semantic interference and facilitation effects in the picture-word interference paradigm

The dominant view in the field of lexical access in speech production maintains that selection of a word becomes more difficult as the levels of activation of nontarget words increase--selection by competition. The authors tested this prediction in two sets of experiments. First, the authors show that participants are faster to name pictures of objects (e.g., "bed") in the context of semantically related verb distractors (e.g., sleep) compared with unrelated verb distractors (e.g., shoot). In the second set of experiments, the authors show that target naming latencies (e.g., "horse") are, if anything, faster for within--category semantically close distractor words (e.g., zebra) than for within--category semantically far distractor words (e.g., whale). In the context of previous research, these data ground a new empirical generalization: As distractor words become semantically closer to the target concepts--all else being equal--target naming is facilitated. This fact means that lexical selection does not involve competition, and consequently, that the semantic interference effect does not reflect a lexical level process. This conclusion has important implications for models of lexical access and interpretations of Stroop-like interference effects.     

The Critical Point to Step into a Hole is Similar in Young and Older Adults

Abstract

The avoidance of a hole in the pathway while walking has been systematically investigated; however, depending on the dimensions of the hole, the option to avoid it is infeasible, and it is necessary to use the so-called accommodation strategy to step into the hole. We investigated the critical point between the avoidance and accommodation strategies when dealing with a hole in the ground during locomotion of young and older adults. Young and older adults performed two tasks: verbal estimation and walking. We used holes of different lengths and constant depth (12?cm). In the verbal estimation task, participants stood and looked at each hole and verbally respond if they would step into or avoid it. In the walking task, they walked and chose to either step or avoid the hole. Both age groups preferred to step into the hole when it was larger than 1.3 times their foot length in both tasks. The perception of affordances of young and older adults to step into a hole was similar, and it was unaffected by the investigated tasks. Thus, our participants preferred to have a safety margin that was large enough to guarantee that the whole foot would accommodate within the hole.     

Acquisition and maintenance of delayed matching-to-sample in tufted capuchin monkeys

Delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS) is a commonly used procedure to investigate short-term memory. For the study of functions of forgetting, the delay between the disappearance of the sample stimulus and appearance of choices is manipulated. The intertrial interval (ITI) is also varied to assess interference effects. Performance decrements have been observed as delay increases and, in some cases, performance recovery occurs when ITIs are increased. Other studies indicate that the higher the ITI/delay ratio, the greater the accuracy in DMTS. In this study, 2 experiments investigated DMTS performances of 3 tufted capuchin monkeys as function of delay and ITI. In Experiment 1, alternation of gradual increases of delay and ITI was effective in producing ≥90% accuracy at delays as long as 90 s. Individual monkeys differed in the highest value of delay at which this criterion was met. In Experiment 2, the monkeys were exposed to 5-s DMTS with different ITIs to assess the effects of various ITI/delay ratios on accuracy. Highest accuracy tended to occur at the higher ITI/delay ratios.     

Evaluations of causal and conditional hypotheses

This study examined evaluations of causal and conditional hyptheses on the basis of individual exemplars. Subjects were presented scenes describing something that is malfunctioning and is taken to an expert. The expert makes a causal diagnosis and a prediction concerning an outcome following treatment. Four types of outcome evidence were provided: (1) treatment is provided and the problem is eliminated; (2) treatment is not provided and the problem is eliminated; (3) treatment is provided and the problem is not eliminated; and (4) treatment is not provided and the problem is not eliminated. Subjects were required to judge whether individual exemplars prove the diagnosis, disprove the diagnosis, or fail to test the diagnosis. A second form of problem presented the same scenes but required evaluation of the conditional prediction. A third form of problem did not present the causal scenes; the subject evaluated the conditional predication and no context. Three content domains were used: medical, mechanical, and arbitrary. There were three general results: (1) diagnoses were judged as less open to testing than predictive conditional hypotheses; (2) medical problems were judged differently from mechanical problems; and (3) problems lacking meaningful content or contexts led to more primitive response strategies.     

A counselling service as a growth centre

The Associates programme at the University of East Anglia is designed as an opportunity for self-development and as a testing ground for those who want to explore their own helping abilities. The structure and content of the programme are described; some examples are provided of the range of follow-up activities which have arisen from it; and attention is given to the potential of the programme as a contribution to the development of the institution as a community.     

Six approaches to the explication of facet-level traits: examples from conscientiousness

Proponents of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality have argued for somewhat different conceptualizations of the factors. Ultimately, the factors are best understood by a specification of the traits (or facets) that define them, and these facets in turn must be clearly conceptualized. Using as examples the Conscientiousness facet scales of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory, we discuss six approaches to understanding facet-level traits: (i) rational analysis of item content; (ii) characterization of the low pole, the psychological opposite; (iii) interpretation of external correlates; (iv) examination of secondary and tertiary factor loadings; (v) translation into the specialized languages of applied psychology; and (vi) case studies. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Social Cure Processes Help Lower Intergroup Anxiety Among Neighborhood Residents

Research in the social cure tradition shows that groups can reduce members' stress by providing support to cope with challenges, but it has yet to consider how this applies to the anxiety occasioned by outgroups. Research on intergroup contact has extensively examined how reducing intergroup anxiety improves attitudes towards outgroups, but it has yet to examine the role of intragroup support processes in facilitating this. The present article takes the case of residential contact, in which the impact of diversification upon neighborhood cohesion is hotly debated, but the role of neighborhood identification and social support from neighbors in facilitating residential mixing has been largely ignored. Our surveys of two geographically bounded communities in England (n = 310; n = 94) and one in Northern Ireland (n = 206) show that neighborhood identification predicts both well-being and more positive feelings towards outgroups, with both effects occurring via increased intragroup support. In studies 2 and 3, we show that this positive effect on feelings towards the outgroup occurs independently of that of intergroup contact and is further explained by the effect of neighborhood support in reducing intergroup anxiety. This suggests that social cure processes can improve intergroup attitudes by supporting group members to deal with the stress of intergroup interactions.     

Problematic internet use and academic achievement: a focus on interpersonal behaviours and academic engagement

In accordance with the Self-Determination Theory, the interpersonal behavior of others can support or thwart the basic psychological needs and influence the well-being of students. Furthermore, several studies have shown that problematic internet use has a negative influence on the academic field. However, no studies have investigated the impact of need-supportive and need-thwarting interpersonal behaviors (using the SDT theoretical framework) on internet addiction, academic engagement, and academic achievement. For this reason, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between students’ perceptions of others’ behaviors that supported or thwarted their basic psychological needs, internet addiction, and academic engagement and the impact on academic achievement through two studies. In the first study, 889 students (age: M?=?20.26, SD?=?3.16), were used to investigate the dimensionality of the Italian version of the Interpersonal Behaviour Questionnaire (IBQ) and the reliability, convergent and concurrent validity. In the second study, 515 students (age: M?=?20.26, SD?=?3.16) were tested to investigate the mediating role of problematic internet use on the relationship between students’ perceptions of others’ behaviors that supported or thwarted their basic psychological needs and academic engagement and the impact on academic achievement. The results of the first study suggested that the Italian version of the IBQ shows good psychometric characteristics in the Italian context. The results of the second study confirmed the mediating role of problematic internet use and academic engagement as mediators between students’ perceptions of need-thwarting interpersonal behaviors and academic achievement.