A new solution to the additive constant problem in metric multidimensional scaling

A new solution to the additive constant problem in metric multidimensional scaling is developed. This solution determines, for a given dimensionality, the additive constant and the resulting stimulus projections on the dimensions of a Euclidean space which minimize the sum of squares of discrepancies between the formal model for metric multidimensional scaling and the original data. A modification of Fletcher-Powell style functional iteration is used to compute solutions. A scale free index of the goodness of fit is developed to aid in selecting solutions of adequate dimensionality from multiple candidates.This research is based in part on the author's Ph.D. dissertation at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Computer time was provided by the Campus Computing Network of the University of California, Los Angeles.     

Obtaining squared multiple correlations from a correlation matrix which may be singular

A theorem is presented relating the squared multiple correlation of each measure in a battery with the other measures to the unique generalized inverse of the correlation matrix. This theorem is independent of the rank of the correlation matrix and may be utilized for singular correlation matrices. A coefficient is presented which indicates whether the squared multiple correlation is unity or not. Note that not all measures necessarily have unit squared multiple correlations with the other measures when the correlation matrix is singular. Some suggestions for computations are given for simultaneous determination of squared multiple correlations for all measures.The research reported in this paper was supported by the Personnel and Training Branch of the Office of Naval Research under Contract Number 00014-67-A-0305-0003 with the University of Illinois.     

Prechoice awareness of relative deprivation as a determinant of cognitive dissonance

Two experiments were conducted to clarify whether negative information presented after a person has committed himself to a course of action is capable of creating cognitive dissonance. Subjects were exposed to high or low relative deprivation either before they chose to participate in a tedious task, after they chose to participate, or without the option not to participate. The results indicated that there was greater satisfaction about participation under high relative deprivation than under low, but only when subjects were aware of the relative deprivation prior to their choice to participate. Information presented after decision was not effective in arousing dissonance. The implications of the experiments for modified views of dissonance theory were discussed.     

Cognitive dissonance as a function of self-esteem and logical inconsistency

An experiment was conducted to test the importance of self-esteem in the arousal of cognitive dissonance. Recently, Aronson (1969) suggested that the reason an attitude-discrepant speech can arouse dissonance is that it is an indecent act committed by an individual who likes to think of himself as a good and decent person. Looking at counterattitudinal behavior as a discrepancy with one's self-concept rather than as a logical discrepancy between behavioral and attitudinal cognitions differs from Festinger and Carlsnuth's (1959) original notion In the experiment reported, subjects volunteered to take a personality inventory and received either neutral, very favorable, or very unfavorable feedback In this way, subjects' level of self-esteem was raised or lowered Following this procedure, subjects were induced to record a speech that was known to be discrepant with their private beliefs. They were offered either a small or a large inducement for their statements. It was predicted that, regardless of their level of self-esteem, subjects would manifest the inverse relationship between incentive magnitude and attitude change predicted by dissonance theory The major analysis of the results, and the concomitant internal analysis, generally supported the prediction With one qualification, the results were held to be consistent with Festinger and Carlsmith's version of dissonance arousal and inconsistent with the self-esteem analysis     

Mental transformations in the identification of left and right hands.

Subjects determined as rapidly as possible whether each line drawing portrayed a left or a right hand when the drawings were presented in any of four versions (palm or back of either hand) and in any of six orientations in the picture plane. Reaction time varied systematically with orientation and, in the absence of advance information, was over 400 msec longer for the fingers-down orientation. However, when subjects were instructed to imagine a specified (palm or back) view of a specified (left or right) hand in a specified orientation, reaction times to test hands that were consistent with these instructions were short (about 500 msec), independent of orientation, and unacompanied by errors. It is proposed that subjects determine whether a visually presented hand is left or right by moving a mental "phantom" of one of their own hands into the portrayed position and by then comparing its imagined appearance against the appearance of the externally presented hand.     

Controversies about stuttering therapy

Current controversies with respect to (1) the need to attend to the feelings and attitudes of stutterers; (2) the teaching of controlled stuttering as opposed to shaping fluency; (3) criteria for determining successful therapy; (4) the problem of relapse; and (5) therapy for the young stutterer are briefly discussed. It is noted that while there may be many controversies in the area of stuttering therapy, the author presently believes that the issue of whether or not to attent to the feelings and attitudes of stutterers is the most important and that the proliferation on the market of exclusively behavior-oriented therapy programs may be fostering the training of technicians without the skills necessary to assist others in identifying and handling feelings and attitudes.