Statistical learning within and between modalities: pitting abstract against stimulus-specific representations

When learners encode sequential patterns and generalize their knowledge to novel instances, are they relying on abstract or stimulus-specific representations? Research on artificial grammar learning (AGL) has shown transfer of learning from one stimulus set to another, and such findings have encouraged the view that statistical learning is mediated by abstract representations that are independent of the sense modality or perceptual features of the stimuli. Using a novel modification of the standard AGL paradigm, we obtained data to the contrary. These experiments pitted abstract processing against stimulus-specific learning. The findings show that statistical learning results in knowledge that is stimulus-specific rather than abstract. They show furthermore that learning can proceed in parallel for multiple input streams along separate perceptual dimensions or sense modalities. We conclude that learning sequential structure and generalizing to novel stimuli inherently involve learning mechanisms that are closely tied to the perceptual characteristics of the input.     

On the capacity of attention: its estimation and its role in working memory and cognitive aptitudes

Working memory (WM) is the set of mental processes holding limited information in a temporarily accessible state in service of cognition. We provide a theoretical framework to understand the relation between WM and aptitude measures. The WM measures that have yielded high correlations with aptitudes include separate storage-and-processing task components, on the assumption that WM involves both storage and processing. We argue that the critical aspect of successful WM measures is that rehearsal and grouping processes are prevented, allowing a clearer estimate of how many separate chunks of information the focus of attention circumscribes at once. Storage-and-processing tasks correlate with aptitudes, according to this view, largely because the processing task prevents rehearsal and grouping of items to be recalled. In a developmental study, we document that several scope-of-attention measures that do not include a separate processing component, but nevertheless prevent efficient rehearsal or grouping, also correlate well with aptitudes and with storage-and-processing measures. So does digit span in children too young to rehearse.     

Exchange relationships: examining psychological contracts and perceived organizational support

The authors surveyed 347 public sector employees on 4 measurement occasions to investigate the conceptual distinctiveness of the psychological contract and perceived organizational support (POS) and how they are associated over time. Results support the distinctiveness of the 2 concepts. In terms of their interrelationships over time, by drawing on psychological contract theory the authors found little support for a reciprocal relationship between POS and psychological contract fulfillment. Under an alternative set of hypotheses, by drawing on organizational support theory and by separating psychological contract fulfillment into its 2 components (perceived employer obligations and inducements), the authors found that perceived employer inducements were positively related to POS, which, in turn, was negatively related to perceived employer obligations. The results suggest that POS and the components of psychological contract fulfillment are more important in predicting organizational citizenship behavior than psychological contract fulfillment.     

A positron emission tomography (PET) study of autobiographical memory retrieval

Memory for the experiences of one's life, autobiographical memory (AM), is one of the most human types of memory, yet comparatively little is known of its neurobiology. A positron emission tomography (PET) study of AM retrieval revealed that the left frontal cortex was significantly active during retrieval (compared to memory control tasks), together with activation in the inferior temporal and occipital lobes in the left hemisphere. We propose that this left frontal lobe activation reflects the operation of control processes that modulate the construction of AMs in posterior neocortical networks.     

Very long-term memory for knowledge acquired at school and university

Recent research into the very long-term retention of knowledge originally acquired during the process of formal education at school and university has demonstrated that such knowledge may be retained at high levels over very long retention intervals. The pattern of retention typically takes the form of a comparatively short period marked by forgetting (lasting between 1 and 6 years) followed by a long period of stable retention (usually longer than 30 years). For courses taken at school the level attained over a series of courses (e.g. in learning a foreign language or studying mathematics) is an important determinant of long-term retention. Students who attain moderate or advanced levels of learning show high levels of retention with very little forgetting, whereas students who attain only lower levels of learning show steady forgetting, and after a period of 6 years retain very little knowledge. Similar patterns of retention are present for university students taking single courses in science and literature subjects, and students with higher grades retain more knowledge although the reliable relationship here, between grade obtained and amount remembered, is weak and accounts for only small portions of the variance in retention. Taken together these findings suggest that the retention of knowledge acquired through formal education persists over longer periods of time than popularly believed. Recent theory proposes that these long-lasting effects of education are partly related to the types of learning schedules followed during acquisition and partly related to the nature of the to-be-acquired knowledge, and to whether or not knowledge can be represented schematically.     

Response styles to sadness are related to sex and sex-role orientation

Nolen-Hoeksema's (1987) response style theory states that women ruminate on sadness more than men, and that men distract themselves from sadness more than women. These response styles are assumed to develop through the socialization of sex-appropriate behavior. The present study extended this argument by examining the relation of sex-role orientation to response styles in an adult sample. It was hypothesized that greater femininity is associated with more rumination and less distraction in response to sadness, and that greater masculinity is associated with less rumination and more distraction in response to sadness. Male and female undergraduates completed the short form of the BSRI and a coping measure. Consistent with expectations, subjects' sex-role scores were significant predictors of coping responses. Higher femininity was associated with more rumination, whereas higher masculinity was associated with more distraction. As in previous research, sex differences emerged. Female subjects relative to male subjects reported more rumination and less distraction in response to sadness. The sex-role findings are discussed in relation to current conceptualizations of femininity and masculinity measures, and in relation to sex-role differences in depression.     

An Exploratory Study of Employers’ Attitudes Towards a Clinical Doctorate in Genetic Counseling

Creation of an advanced degree in genetic counseling has been considered since the early 1980s. The Genetic Counseling Advanced Degree Task Force (GCADTF) was convened in 2012 to formally explore the potential suitability of a clinical doctorate (ClinD), though employer perspectives of advanced training were not part of the discussion. The conclusion of this group was that the field was not ready to move to an entry-level clinical doctorate at this time but that further education and research among other stakeholders was necessary (Nagy et al. 2014). In this study, we describe employers’ perspectives on developing a clinical doctorate in genetic counseling based upon thirty audio-recorded semi-structured phone interviews that were transcribed verbatim and qualitatively analyzed. Overall, employers expressed concerns regarding the economic viability of ClinD training but envisioned expanded roles for genetic counselors (especially in areas of education and research) and enhanced credibility. While some employers reported that they would provide flexibility and tuition assistance for acquisition of a ClinD, for many employers, support was contingent on perceived value of the degree. Some employers were not clear about the difference between a ClinD and a PhD, suggesting that there is a need for educating employers about advanced degree options for the genetic counseling field. Future research could include investigating employer attitudes about market needs, envisioned roles, and compensation formulas for counselors with a ClinD or other forms of advanced training.