Experience Sampling Methods: A Modern Idiographic Approach to Personality Research

Experience sampling methods are essential tools for building a modern idiographic approach to understanding personality. These methods yield multiple snapshots of people's experiences over time in daily life and allow researchers to identify patterns of behavior within a given individual, rather than strictly identify patterns of behavior across individuals, as with standard nomothetic approaches. In this article, we discuss the origin and evolution of idiographic methods in the field of personality and explain how experience sampling methods function as modern day idiographic methods in this field. We then review four primary ways in which experience sampling methods have been used to foster idiographic approaches in personality research. Specifically, we highlight approaches that examine individual differences in temporal and behavioral distributions, situation–behavior contingencies, daily processes, and the structure of daily experience. Following a brief methodology primer, we end by discussing future directions for idiographic experience sampling approaches in personality psychology and beyond.     

Reliability of the UCLA Loneliness Scale in opiate dependent individuals

The purpose of this study was to examine the internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the self-report University of California, Los Angeles, Loneliness Scale (UCLA LS; Russell, 1996) in methadone maintenance patients at an urban university hospital. A diverse sample of 117 patient volunteers completed a standardized interview that included the UCLA LS. A total of 67 participants returned after a minimum of 14 days for a follow-up session to complete an identical assessment but with a different researcher. We examined internal consistency and test-retest reliability in the total sample and in groups stratified by gender, race, ethnicity, and education. Across strata, the UCLA LS showed adequate to high internal consistency and good to excellent test-retest reliability. The UCLA LS was highly correlated with a measure of perceived belonging, supporting criterion validity. Findings support the use of the UCLA LS with methadone maintenance patients.     

The effects of activating a “baby brain” stereotype on pregnant women’s cognitive functioning

Throughout pregnancy and into the immediate postpartum period, women are generally perceived to be incompetent, stressed, and forgetful. However, the neuropsychological “baby brain” literature remains unclear and contradictory. Across two studies, we provide the first experimental tests of whether perceived cognitive impairment in pregnancy can be explained by stereotype threat theory, which proposes that awareness of negative stereotypes about one’s ingroup can harm performance. In Study 1 (N = 364), we tested stereotype threat effects in a 2 (stereotype threat versus no threat) × 3 (pregnant women versus new mothers versus never-pregnant female control) design. We observed a main effect of group on memory performance (pregnant women and new mothers performed worse than controls), but no other main or interactive effects. Study 2 (N = 409) aimed to extend these research questions with mathematics ability, memory, and attention as the dependent variables. Again, we found that a stereotype threat manipulation did not impair pregnant women and new mothers’ cognitive performance, nor was there any interactive effects. Groups also did not differ in their performance. We discuss these results in the context of stereotype threat mechanisms, calling into question whether a stereotype threat paradigm can be applied effectively to pregnancy-related stereotypes. This work has implications for the advancement of stereotype threat as a theory and contributes to the reappraisal of the utility of stereotype threat as a way of understanding how stereotypes affect performance.     

Predicting and understanding behavioral volitions: the interplay between goals and behaviors

In traditional attitude research behavioral volitions have been usually considered in isolation from the broader context that justify their formation. Most behaviors are functional to goal achievement and can be better understood and predicted by considering relevant constructs at the goal level. The interplay between behaviors and goals is the focus of this study. Constructs specified by the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) are examined together with constructs proposed by the Model of Goal‐directed Behavior (MGB) and two further goal constructs (goal desires and goal perceived feasibility). These theoretical ideas are tested on a sample of 104 students having a goal for body weight regulation or for studying effort. The results indicate that the inclusion of distal goal‐related constructs significantly improve the prediction of behavioral volitions, over and above the prediction based on behavior‐related constructs. The MGB and an extended model outperform the TPB and show substantial predictive power. The implications of the findings for research on behaviors and goals are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Differential effects of mood on information processing: evidence from the theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour

The theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour continue to receive considerable research attention, despite criticisms of their ‘asocial’ conceptualisation and the rational decision‐making approach. Two studies were designed to assess the impact of induced mood on condom use (Study 1) and food choice (Study 2). Both studies provided support for application of the theory of reasoned action to health‐related behaviour, and for differential effects of mood on information processing. Study 1 provided support for problem‐focus theory, with attitudes (but not subjective norm) predicting intention in the negative mood condition. The opposite pattern of findings held for the positive mood condition (i.e. only subjective norm predicted intention). The results of Study 2 provided further support for the problem‐focus approach and for the inclusion of self‐identity in the theory of planned behaviour. The findings are discussed with implications for future work on mood and behavioural decision making. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Can the theory of planned behavior explain patterns of health behavior change?

This article tested the ability of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to predict patterns of behavior change associated with health screening. Attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intentions were used to predict objective measures of attendance 1 month and 13 months later among participants who had never previously been screened (N = 389). Findings showed that the TPB predicted attendance on each occasion and also predicted frequency of attendance. However, the model was unable to reliably distinguish among consistent attendees, participants who delayed attending, and participants who initially attended but relapsed. Thus, the TPB needs to be extended to understand behaviors that must be performed promptly and repeatedly for health benefits to accrue.     

The Theory of Planned Behavior and Ecstasy Use: Roles for Habit and Perceived Control Over Taking Versus Obtaining Substances

Despite increasing use of the illicit substance known as ecstasy , there is a paucity of research concerning psychosocial correlates of its use. A prospective study examined the ability of variables specified by the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to predict ecstasyuse intentions and behavior. Regression analyses showed that theory of reasoned action and TPB variables provided good prediction of intentions to use the substance. Moreover, support was obtained for a distinction between perceptions of behavioral control over taking ecstasy vs. control over obtaining the substance in the prediction of intentions. Habit contributed additional variance to the prediction of intentions, and reduced the effects of perceived behavioral control over taking ecstasy to nonsignificance. Ecstasy use over 2 months was directly predicted from intentions to use the substance.     

Age differences in skill acquisition and transfer in an implicit learning paradigm

Age differences in learning a complex cognitive skill are examined. The type of knowledge gained and levels of performance and transfer achieved, under different practice conditions, were compared in younger and older groups of trainees. The development of verbalizable knowledge about the task but not task performance itself varied as a function of age and practice condition. All trainees achieved transfer to novel versions of the task but older subjects appeared restricted to tasks drawn from the same semantic domain. The implications of these findings for developing training programmes for older workers are discussed.     

Adrenocortical influences on free-operant avoidance behavior

Rats were conditioned to avoid shock on a free-operant avoidance schedule in which no exteroceptive stimulus signaled impending shock. Injections of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or dexamethasone raised blood levels of glucocorticoids. These increases were accompanied by changes in avoidance performance: there was a higher frequency of long-duration interresponse times, a greater stability among them, and fewer short interresponse times, total responses, and shocks.