The Influence of Outcome Expectancy and Self-Efficacy on the Behavioral Intentions of Novice Exercisers

The present study was based upon self-efficacy (SE) theory (Bandura, 1986). Its purpose was to examine whether incentives, defined as the product of outcome expectancy and outcome value, would help to predict the behavioral intentions of novice exercisers when coupled with SE expectations for a specific form of exercise. Fifty- three volunteers who were novices at weight training for exercise, participated in a 2-day learn-to-weight-train clinic offered at a university. They completed pre- and postclinic measures of SE for weight training, expectancy-value ratings of outcomes primary and secondary to 1 month's weight-training participation, and a strength- of-intention measure of multiple actions consequent to clinic participation. Results indicated that primary physical health outcomes expected of postclinic participation independently predicted the variability in pre- and postclinic future intentions beyond the variance predicted by SE. Further, incentives and SE clearly discriminated between individuals extreme in the strength of their intentions at pre- and postclinic. Discussion concerns the inclusion of measures of incentive in studies using self-efficacy theory in order to examine individuals who begin exercise and then move through various decision stages about exercise adoption and maintenance. Rather than merely assuming the influence of incentives necessary and sufficient to encourage a cognitive or behavioral impact of efficacy, arguments are made for actively examining incentive as manifested through outcome expectations.     

AN EXPERIMENTAL COMPARISON OF THREE DIFFERENT SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT OF DRUG ABSTINENCE USING CIGARETTE SMOKING AS AN EXEMPLAR

The efficacy of three different schedules of reinforcement for promoting and sustaining drug abstinence was compared in this study. Cigarette smoking was studied as an exemplar of stimulant drug self-administration. Sixty cigarette smokers were assigned to one of three groups (progressive rate of reinforcement, fixed rate of reinforcement, and yoked control). Participants in all three groups were asked to refrain from smoking for 1 week. Participants in the progressive and fixed groups achieved greater mean levels of abstinence than those in the control group. Participants in the progressive group were significantly less likely to resume smoking when they became abstinent than participants in the other groups.     

Gender-Role Differences in Decision-Making Orientations and Decision-Making Skills1

The relationship between gender role identification and decision making orientations was examined. Decision making was analyzed in terms of decision making orientation (behavioral, cognitive, and emotional) and decision making skills (problem definition and formulation, generation of alternative solutions, choice process, solution implementation, and verification). The results revealed a 2-factor characterization of general decision making in terms of approach-avoidance tendencies and self-appraisals of decision skills. A masculinity model was supported for decision making orientation, with masculinity serving as the only significant predictor. In contrast, an androgyny model was supported for decision making skills, with masculinity and femininity serving as significant predictors.     

Longitudinal Development of the Automatic Postural Response in Infants

In this longitudinal study, the development of automatic postural responses elicited during stance following perturbation of the support surface was investigated. Infants (N = 9) unable to stand without support were tested initially: follow-up tests were performed until the infants were able to stand and walk independently. Surface electromyographic recordings of leg and trunk muscle activity following a postural perturbation induced by a forward or backward translation of the support surface were made for each infant. Muscle onset latencies following the perturbation and the proportion of trials in which muscle activity was recorded were determined. First, infants activated appropriate muscles either in isolation or in pairs and then combined these muscles into functional synergies. Although activation of all three postural muscles was recorded in infants before they were able to stand and walk independently, the three-muscle response was not consistent in the youngest children. The proportion of trials eliciting muscle activity continued to increase (p <.O5) after infants began to walk independently, with postural muscle activity recorded in virtually every trial by late independent walking. Thus. the automatic postural response elicited during stance was shown to begin with activity in single or paired muscles, followed by activation of the postural muscles in functional synergies. These data illustrate the progressive development of an effective sensory-motor organization.     

Models of madness: Science and soul

The historical interplay between psychiatry and religion is placed in a contemporary context here. In their zeal to embrace new discoveries and technologies in neurophysiology, modern psychiatrists are losing sight of spiritual and cultural dimensions. From a biological perspective, there is confusion about what constitutes a cause, a concomitant, or a consequence of mental illness. Computer metaphors are being used to explain mental illness. This article examines such trends and questions whether, in the decade of the brain, psychiatry is in danger of losing its soul.     

Cognitive-behavioral treatment for professional sexual misconduct among the clergy

Inappropriate sexual behavior by professionals has been reported in increasing numbers. This article focuses on the cognitive-behavioral treatment of clergy who have acted out sexually. Case studies are used to identify the various issues and facets of treatment. The article concludes with a program designed to return previously offending clergy to active roles within their denominations is described.     

AN AMERICAN NATURALIST ACCOUNT OF CULTURE

The basic tenets of “classical” naturalism (exemplified in the work of Mead, Buchler, and Randall, among others) are delineated and distinguished from other versions of naturalism. Classical naturalism is also distinguished from reductive materialism and idealism. Nature is asserted to be indefinitely plural and not amenable to monistic or dualistic categorial schemes; that is, the principle of “ontological parity” is maintained. The method of inquiry of naturalism is outlined, along with the notion of truth as perspectivally objective. The metaphysical hypotheses are then used to examine culture. Culture is found to be the specific environment of human being, arising out of, but irreducible to, other natural processes. Culture is described as the cumulative gestures of the human social organism as it discovers and creates itself in mutual constitution with other natural processes and products.