Group process: A developmental view

Group process is a phenomenon which is still only partly understood. This paper investigates different factors which might contribute to group process and possible group developmental sequences. Theoretical ideas are illustrated in the context of a two-day therapeutic group experience.     

Observing responses and informative stimuli

Pigeons were trained on a trial procedure. A trial began with the illumination of a pecking key by a white light. After a fixed interval, a key peck could turn the key to one of two equi-probable colors and produce a delayed trial outcome—an equi-probable occurrence of either reinforcement or nonreinforcement. After a trial, the key turned dark and the trial ended. The response could be made into an observing response by correlating the key colors with the outcomes. Response rates in the fixed interval then increased to a level greater than when the colors and outcomes were uncorrelated. In another phase, the response produced only the colors. The trial outcomes occurred some seconds after the fixed interval without a response being required. Correlating the colors with the outcomes again increased response rates. In a second experiment, a further condition was added in which reinforcement was the outcome on every trial. Response rates were lower than when there were equi-probable reinforcement and nonreinforcement outcomes with correlated colors, and about the same as when there were equi-probable outcomes with uncorrelated colors. The results suggest that stimuli providing information about the probability of reinforcement are themselves reinforcing.     

Psychometric, diurnal, and electrophysiological correlates of activation.

Several studies were performed using Thayer's Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD-ACL). Factor analysis of college students' scores identified a single activation factor representing a continuum ranging from sleep through wakefulness. Next, changes over the diurnal cycle in activation factor scores were demonstrated. One-week test-retest reliability was also investigated. Finally, activation scores were related to pulse rate, respiration rate, and skin resistance level under passive and active conditions. Correlations between factor scores and electrophysiological measures were higher than were intercorrelations of electrophysiological measures, indicating that scores on this revised activation factor represent a valid measure of phenomenological bodily activation level.     

Evaluation of a home-based language training programme with severely mentally handicapped children

A home-based Language Training Programme was carried out with pre-school and school-age severely mentally handicapped children, over a 16–18-month period. Compared to control groups, the experimental groups did not show significantly greater progress on normreferenced measures of language development, although all groups showed significant improvement over time. The implications of these findings are discussed in the light of a number of methodological problems with the study.     

Intrinsic religious motivation and attitudes toward death among the elderly

Forty-five males and females ages 65 and older completed the Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale, a measure of faith development (based on Fowler, 1981), and two multidimensional measures of death anxiety (the Collett-Lester Fear of Death Scale-Revised and the Multidimensional Fear of Death Scale). Individuals with intrin-sic religious motivation reported significantly lower levels of various types of death anxiety than did individuals with extrinsic religious motivation. No significant rela-tionships were found between stage of faith and attitudes toward death and dying.     

Illusion of control: invulnerability to negative affect and depressive symptoms after laboratory and natural stressors.

We examined whether individual differences in susceptibility to the illusion of control predicted differential vulnerability to depressive responses after a laboratory failure and naturally occurring life stressors. The illusion of control decreased the likelihood that subjects (N = 145) would (a) show immediate negative mood reactions to the laboratory failure, (b) become discouraged after naturally occurring negative life events, and (c) experience increases in depressive symptoms a month later given the occurrence of a high number of negative life events. In addition, the stress-moderating effect of the illusion of control on later depressive symptoms appeared to be mediated in part by its effect on reducing the discouragement subjects experienced from the occurrence of negative life events. These findings provide support for the hopelessness theory of depression and for the optimistic illusion-mental health link.     

Parenting and attachment among toddlers with congenital anomalies: Examining the Strange Situation and attachment Q‐sort

This study assessed parent and child predictors of attachment in a sample of 72 toddlers with neurological (e.g., cerebral palsy) and non‐neurological (e.g., cleft lip and palate) birth defects and their mothers. Parenting quality (e.g., sensitivity) was expected to be more important in predicting the attachment relationship than type and severity of child medical condition. Parenting and indices of severity of child condition were measured via researcher observation. Attachment was measured via the Strange Situation and parent reported Attachment Q‐sort. Parenting quality was better for children with more severe appearance disfigurements. Strange Situation and Q‐sort assessments of attachment were not significantly related. Children with neurological impairments were at greater risk for developing insecure attachments than were children with non‐neurological conditions. Parenting quality also directly predicted Strange Situation assessed attachment security and Q‐sort comfort seeking/exploration but not standard Q‐sort criterion scores. Parenting quality partially mediated the relation between child medical condition and attachment security. Results suggest child medical factors influence parenting, and thereby, child attachment. ©2002 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.