A TEST OF THE FORMAL AND MODERN THEORIES OF MATCHING

Pigeons' choosing between fixed-interval and random-interval schedules of reinforcement was investigated in three experiments using a discrete-trial procedure. In all three experiments, the random-interval schedule was generated by sampling a probability distribution at an interval (and in multiples of the interval) equal to that of the fixed-interval schedule. Thus the programmed delays to reinforcement on the random alternative were never shorter and were often longer than the fixed interval. Despite this feature, the fixed schedule was not strongly preferred. Increases in the probability used to generate the random interval resulted in decreased preferences for the fixed schedule. In addition, the number of consecutive choices on the preferred alternative varied directly with preference, whereas the consecutive number of choices on the nonpreferred alternative was fairly constant. The probability of choosing the random alternative was unaffected by the immediately prior interval encountered on that schedule, even when it was very long relative to the average value. The results loosely support conceptions of a "preference for variability" from foraging theory and the "utility of behavioral variability" from human decision-making literatures.     

The belief in a just world and distress at school

This article investigates the relationship between the belief in a just world (BJW) and distress at school. On the basis of just world theory, the authors argue that strong student BJW should be associated with low school distress. Two questionnaire studies with German secondary school students attending grades 7–13 are reported. Both studies found strong BJW to be associated with less distress at school, better grades, and the evaluation of grades and teachers as more just. Moreover, the relationship between strong BJW and low school distress persisted when controlled for grades, justice of grades, and teacher justice. This relationship held for all students, independently of their school track, grade level, or gender. Overall, the pattern of results reveals school distress to have a unique association with BJW and school-specific justice cognitions.     

An exploration of factors contributing to multicultural counseling self-efficacy in addiction counselors

A non-experimental, correlational survey design was used to explore relationships between counselor recovery status, training, and counselor demographic variables on multicultural counseling self-efficacy in addiction counselors (N = 283) using the Multicultural Counseling Self-Efficacy – Racial Diversity Form. A multiple-indicators and multiple-causes model analysis indicated significant differences based on race, multicultural education, and CACREP program attendance on multicultural counseling self-efficacy. Implications from this study and recommendations for future research are discussed.     

Stoicism, Evil, and the Possibility of Morality

Martha Nussbaum's work has been characterized by a sustained critique of Stoic ethics, insofar as that ethics denies the validity and importance of our valuing things that elude our control. This essay explores the idea that the very possibility of morality, understood as social or interpersonal ethics, presupposes that we do value such things. If my argument is right, Stoic ethics is unable to recognize the validity of morality (so understood) but can at most acknowledge duties to oneself. A further implication is that moral luck, so far from undermining morality as some have held, is presupposed by the very possibility of morality.     

Perception of Object Length by Sound

Although hearing is classically considered a temporal sense, everyday listening suggests that subtle spatial properties constitute an important part of what people know about the world through sound. Typically neglected in psychoacoustics research, the ability to perceive the precise sizes of objects on the basis of sound was investigated during the routine event of dropping wooden dowels of different lengths onto a hard surface. In two experiments, the ordinal and metrical success of naive listeners was related to length but not to the simple acoustic variables (duration, amplitude, frequency) likely to be related to it. Additional analysis suggests the potential relevance of an object's inertia tensor in constraining perception of that object's length, analogous to the case that has been made for perceiving length by effortful touch.     

The significance of prognosis for a theory of medical practice

A typical problem of modern medicine results from the gap between scientific knowledge and its application in individual cases. Whereas scientific knowledge is generalized and impersonal information, medical practice takes place under conditions which are singular, individual and irreversible. The paper examines whether prognosis is able to bridge this gap or hiatus theoreticus. It is shown that diagnosis of a single case always relies on prognostic considerations. The individual prognosis (as distinguished from the nosologic prognosis of a certain disease) enables doctors to apply scientific knowledge and practice according to the actual situation, the history and personal preferences of the patient. Prognosis – not diagnosis – therefore legitimizes medical interference. A methodology of individual prognosis as the basis for a theory of practice is discussed.     

Measuring neighborhood context for young children in an urban area

Awareness of worsening conditions in urban areas has led to a growing interest in how neighborhood context affects children. Although the ecological perspective within child development has acknowledged the relevance of community factors, methods of measuring the neighborhood context for children have been quite limited. An approach to measuring neighborhood environments was tested using the average perceptions of caregivers of young children sampled from high- and low-risk block groups. Individual- and aggregate-level reliabilities and discriminant validity were acceptable for dimensions of neighborhood quality and change, participation in block organizations, disorder and incivilities, service usage and quality, and retaliation against adults. However, for measures of neighborhood interaction and the tendency of adults to intervene with children, there was virtually no agreement among respondents within block groups, resulting in poor aggregate reliability. A model of variability may be a more promising way of characterizing neighborhoods along these dimensions. This research was supported primarily by a grant from The Foundation for Child Development, as well as support from the Cleveland Foundation.     

Addressing women's breast cancer risk and perceptions of control in medical settings

Many women with family histories of breast cancer deal with two distinct but related issues: their objective physical risk and the emotions this risk engenders. Studies indicate that approximately 70% of African American and white women are concerned about their chances of developing breast cancer someday and perceive themselves to be at risk. Health care providers, including psychologists, need to be aware of the special needs and psychosocial concerns of high-risk women with family histories of breast cancer, since perceptions of breast cancer risk influence screening practices. Providers need training in understanding the significance of specific family patterns of breast cancer, screening guidelines appropriate for women at risk, and the benefits and risks of available prevention options, including genetic screening. Delivering accurate information about both established risk factors known to elevate personal risk, such as age and family history, and factors which women associate with breast cancer, such as bumping and bruising a breast, smoking, and oral contraceptive use, is essential for promoting accurate risk perceptions and appropriate screening schedules.     

On being more than just a part of the whole: Regional identity and social distinctiveness

This article reports the results of a questionnaire study that examined the relationship between regional identification and perceptual accentuation of ingroup distinctiveness in a natural field setting. Respondents were male inhabitants of the Saarland which is a small German state. Half the respondents were members of the leading political party of the Saarland, while the other respondents were members of the major opposition party. As expected, the former showed more pronounced regional identification than the latter. Our main prediction was that a higher level of regional identification would be accompanied by stronger accentuation of positive distinctiveness of the regional ingroup relative to the national ingroup. The prediction was confirmed, both in terms of intergroup differentiation and perceived group homogeneity. Additional results suggest that, depending on the level of social identification, perceived group homogeneity may be either positively or negatively related to familiarity with the ingroup. Finally, we discuss the applicability of social identity theory to social contexts comprising differentially inclusive ingroups instead of mutually exclusive ingroups and outgroups.