All smiles perceived equally: Facial expressions trump target characteristics in impression formation

Race, gender, and emotionally expressive facial behavior have been associated with trait inferences in past research. However, it is unclear how interactions among these factors influence trait perceptions. In the current research, we test the roles of targets’ race, gender, and facial expression along with participants’ culture in predicting personality ratings. Caucasian and Asian-American participants rated the big-5 personality traits of either smiling or inexpressive photographs of Caucasian and Asian male and female faces. Ratings of extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness differed significantly across inexpressive targets as a function of race and gender categorization and individual characteristics. Smiling was associated with reduced variation in perceptions of targets’ extraversion and agreeableness relative to ratings made of inexpressive targets. In addition, participant culture generally did not significantly impact trait ratings. Results suggest that emotionally expressive facial behavior reduces the use of information based on race or gender in forming impressions of interpersonally relevant traits.     

Postpartum Depression in Mothers and Fathers: The Role of Parenting Efficacy Expectations During the Transition to Parenthood

Research demonstrates that belief in one’s effectiveness as a parent (parenting efficacy) is linked to numerous positive outcomes for new parents. Conversely, the perceived inability to meet expectations is associated with negative mental health consequences for mothers and fathers. In the present paper we examine the impact of parenting efficacy expectations on the mental health statuses of new parents. Using three waves of data spanning from the prenatal period to the 4-months postpartum period from a sample of 150 first-time mothers and fathers in the Midwestern United States, we find that parenting efficacy is negatively associated with postpartum depression (PPD) for both mothers and fathers throughout the transition period. We also find that mothers and fathers whose parenting efficacy experiences were more negative than expected reported higher levels of PPD at 1-month postpartum. This effect dissipates for mothers, but not fathers, by 4-months postpartum, suggesting differences in the experiences of mothers and fathers during this transition. We conclude that research on the transition to parenthood should continue to include fathers in an effort to better understand the mental health consequences of becoming a parent for the first time, as well as enhance interventions designed to assist couples experiencing this important transition.     

On the Determination of Planetary Distances in the Ptolemaic System

In 1975, Imre Lakatos and Elie Zahar claimed that the determination of planetary distances represents excess empirical content of Copernicus’s theory over that of Ptolemy. This claim provoked an interesting discussion during the first half of the 1980s. The discussion started when Alan Chalmers affirmed that it is not correct to attribute this advantage to the Copernican system over the Ptolemaic. Other scholars criticized Chalmers’s assertion, reaffirming the position of Lakatos and Zahar: one went even further, asserting that Copernicus has not one but two methods for calculating distances, even though this claim was subsequently also criticized. But all participants assumed that Ptolemy has no method for calculating planetary distances. In this article, I argue that this is not correct. I argue, in fact, that Ptolemy has two independent methods for calculating the distances of some of the planets and, therefore, as far as the calculation of planetary distances is concerned, Ptolemy’s system surpasses that of Copernicus.     

Rorschach Comprehensive System data for a sample of 37 nonpatient/nondelinquent adolescents from the United States

This study is composed of 37 American adolescents, ages 15 to 17 years of age, all from the United States. The principal author was the sole examiner. Inclusion criteria are described. Interrater reliability statistics at the response level are presented along with scores for the Rorschach Comprehensive System (CS; Exner, 2003). The results revealed differences from the published norms on variables that reflect poor form quality, fewer popular responses, more attention to detail, more poor human relationship responses, and a more simplistic, affective-free approach to the environment, among others.     

Marriage guidance counselling: I. What clients think will help

Thirty-one first-time attenders for marriage guidance counselling were given a non-schedule standardised interview and a client questionnaire. The main aim was to identify the counselling and counsellor characteristics which clients considered would be most helpful in dealing with their problems. Traditional counselling skills such as the ability to be warm, supportive, understanding and a good listener were seen to be important by most clients. However, the vast majority of clients indicated that it would be helpful to receive the counsellor's opinion about their marriage, their personal problems and marriage in general: this is incompatible with a non-directive approach to counselling. Whilst clients may not know best how they should be helped, counsellors who fail to address their preconceptions risk mutual disappointment and premature termination of counselling.     

The impact of neuroticism upon married bipolar patients

The NEO Personality Inventory was given to 33 married patients with bipolar disorder. Consistent with previous findings, patients with bipolar disorder did not show an abnormal personality profile as a group. Extremely wide variation on all scales indicated that the group profile tells little about individual patients. Trait neuroticism robustly predicted psychiatric symptoms at entry to the study when assessed retrospectively for the two years prior to entry and when averaged over a year of treatment. Neuroticism also negatively predicted the self-confidence of the patients in this sample. The patients identified as outliers on neuroticism form a clinically difficult group for whom the distinction between Axes I and II appears to be less meaningful.     

Psychoeducation and managed care: Clinical issues for the 1990s

Managed care has challenged mental health professionals to develop more efficient ways of addressing patient care needs. Psychoeducational programs, for patients and their families, have emerged as a medium by which relevant education and mutual support can be provided to participants. A review of the literature, a comprehensive model of psychoeducation, and the advantages of such models within the managed care program are offered. Also addressed are issues and import, treatment and research considerations.     

Parenting and Children's Intrinsic Motivation in Age Group Swimming

The parenting correlates of children's intrinsic motivation in swimming were examined. Mothers and fathers of 135 9- to 12-year-old competitive swimmers completed questionnaires about their child's swimming ability and about their current parenting practices. Children provided information about their swimming motivations. Results showed that children's ability in swimming (based on both mother and father ratings and on objective swimming performance) was positively associated with children's reports of intrinsic motivation. After controlling for child ability, mothers', but not fathers', parenting practices predicted children's intrinsic motivation: maternal directiveness was negatively associated with intrinsic motivation and maternal performance goals showed a positive association. Curvilinear effects were significant as well, with the highest level of intrinsic motivation found among children whose mothers showed intermediate values on performance goals and either high or low levels of directiveness.     

Fear and Disgust Responding to Heterogeneous Blood-Injection-Injury Stimuli: Distinctions from Anxiety Symptoms

Discrepancies exist in the literature regarding the unique role of disgust in Blood-Injection-Injury (BII) phobia. The present study attempts to clarify the discrepancy using a sample of analogue BII phobics (n = 40) and nonphobics (n = 40) who completed a series of questionnaires and were exposed to blood, mutilation, and injection pictures. The findings revealed that BII phobics reported greater disgust and contamination fears than nonphobics after controlling for anxious symptoms. When rating phobia-relevant pictures, BII phobics responded with greater fear and disgust than nonphobics after controlling for baseline anxiety scores. Furthermore, disgust was the dominant emotional response for BII phobics for the blood and mutilation stimuli. However, no differences were found between fear and disgust within the BII group when rating injection stimuli. The implications of these findings for better understanding the potential unique role of disgust in the etiology, maintenance, and treatment of BII phobia are discussed.