Memory scanning of described images and undescribed images: Hemispheric differences

Seamon (1972) has found that reaction times (RTs) to memory probes do not increase with memory set size (M) for words encoded in mental images in a memory scanning task. Rothstein and Atkinson (1975) have failed to replicate Seamon’s results. Experiment 1 investigated this discrepancy by manipulating one methodological difference (whether images were or were not described) between the two investigations. Results revealed that described images produced typical linear increases in RT with M. Undescribed images, however, revealed no change in RT with M for positive probes (i.e., the word presented was contained in the current memory set). Experiment 2 manipulated to which visual field probes were presented (RVF — right visual field; LVF = left visual field). Results showed that the imagery group showed no relation between RT and M for probes presented to the LVF, but a linear relation for probes presentedto the RVF. Described-image and repetition groups revealed a linear relation between RT and M no matter which visual field received the probe.     

Letters to santa claus: Elementary school-age children's sex-typed toy preferences in a natural setting

Sex-typed toy preferences were assessed in a nonrestrictive, ecologically valid manner. Letters to Santa Claus requesting Christmas presents, written by 154 elementary school-age children, were analyzed for number and sex-stereotypy of toys requested. Girls requested more toys than boys and children more often requested nonsex-typed (neutral) than sex-typed toys. Girls were especially likely to request neutral toys, while boys were equally likely to request neutral or masculine-typed toys. However, children preferred sex-appropriate to sex-inappropriate toys. The results support efforts to investigate both neutral and sex-typed toy preferences in natural contexts.     

Sex differences in coping with depression

A Depression Coping Questionnaire (DCQ) was devised to compare strategies for coping with depression reported by male and female college students. Discriminant analysis showed that females were significantly more likely than males to report crying, eating, smoking cigarettes, becoming irritable, and confronting their feelings when depressed. Males were significantly more likely than females to report becoming aggressive and engaging in sexual behavior when depressed. Discriminant analysis data from students in Massachusetts showed significant cross-validation with discriminant analysis data from students in California. Comparison of depressed males and females indicated that depressed males reported behaviors of withdrawal such as spending time alone and using stimulating and tranquilizing drugs. Depressed females reported self-blame. Significant multiple correlations between DCQ questions and depression scores on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) showed that high BDI scores were associated with isolation and escape in males, and with self-blame and acting out in females. It is concluded that depressed females might benefit most from alleviation of self-blame and adaptive relabeling of depressive symptoms, and depressed males might benefit most from increased self-awareness and active coping.The authors are indebted to Colleen F. Surber, John R. Surber, and Frederick B. Meeker.     

Processing level and recognition: A search method for inducing alternative encodings of unrelated words

Twenty-four subjects viewed cards containing four words. In synonym orienting, half of the cards contained a synonym pair and half did not; in homophone orienting, half of the displays contained a homophone pair. The remaining two words in each display were used to index retention. During presentation of displays, subjects responded “yes” or “no” to indicate the presence or absence of a matching pair. Following presentation, a recognition test was administered. Half the items were tested early and half were tested late; within each test order, half the items appeared with context cues during testing and half appeared without. Results showed superior recognition (1) following semantic orienting, (2) for items tested early, (3) for items tested with context, and (4) for nonmatch displays requiring exhaustive item comparison. An Orienting by Test Cuing interaction showed that the presence of test cues improved recognition for homophone orienting items only. The interaction may have resulted from the lack of cuetarget associations and the reinstatement of the phonemic orienting set during the test.     

Effects of self-attributed and other-attributed gaze on interpersonal evaluations between males and females

Male and female subjects were placed together in pairs for 10 min to get to know each other and talk about anything they wished. After the conversation, an experimenter gave the participants false feedback about the amount of gaze between them during the conversation. One subject (designated Self) was reported by the experimenter to have gazed at the Other at a higher level than usual for most people, at an average level, or at a lower level than usual for most people. After the conversation and the false feedback manipulation, subjects evaluated each other on a rating form. Results of the experiment showed that females gave males the most favorable ratings when they had ostensibly gazed at the males at a high level. Males were most favorable toward females when they thought they had given the females low levels of gaze. When considering the gaze of the other person, both male and female subjects rated a low gazing partner as least attentive and a high gazing partner as most sincere. Males rated low gazing females as least attractive. Females rated males with high reported gaze as least attractive. The research was discussed in terms of Bem's theory that attitudes are a function rather than a cause of behavior. Results were integrated with past research and suggestions for further study were made.     

Self-perception and characteristics of premanipulation attitudes: A test of Bem’s theory

In a study to provide evidence for the assumption of self-perception theory that premanipulation attitudes are not salient to postmanipulation phenomenology, Bem and McConnell (1970) performed two forced-compliance experiments. One experiment was a typical forced-compliance experiment in which Ss indicated their postmanipulation attitudes. In the other experiment, the Ss were asked to recall their premanipulation attitude after the essay writing task. It was found that the recall ratings were essentially the same as the postmanipulation attitude ratings. The present study was a partial replication of the Bern and McConnell experiment. The results of this study indicate that premanipulation attitudes are salient to the postmanipulation phenomenology of Ss for whom these attitudes are highly relevant.     

The intersecting-overlapping self: Contemporary psychoanalysis reconsiders religion—Again

Heinz Kohut's psychoanalytic psychology of the self advances a distinctive interpretation of human nature that has significant implications for the study of religion. It presents a gestalt through which data otherwise not seen may be observed, and known data may be observed from a new angle of vision. To illumine particular features of this distinctive gestalt, as well as how and why it evolved, the discussion turns to the context within which all psychoanalytic theorizing emerges: the clinical situation. A clinical vignette is presented. An interpretation of the vignette from a classical psychoanalytic perspective exposes how Freudian categories, and our colloquial language, mistakenly collapse all data to fit within the boundaries of a subject-object model. Certain clinical data contribute to the formulation of a selfobject model, re-presented in terms of the root metaphor intersecting-overlapping self. Methodological, orientational, and normative implications of the selfobject model for the study of religion are presented.     

EFFECTS OF SELF-MANAGEMENT TRAINING AND REINFORCEMENT ON THE TRANSFER OF IMPROVED CONDUCT IN THE ABSENCE OF SUPERVISION

The instruction, maintenance, and transfer of training of social skills of 3 seriously emotionally disturbed adolescents were accomplished by a self-management training and reinforcement package. During baseline sessions these students, who were covertly filmed in their classroom, averaged over 90% off-task or socially inappropriate behavior while their teacher was out of the room. They showed similar behaviors when walking between classes, unattended by their teacher. Treatment was introduced in the classroom and consisted of social skills and self-management training and reinforcement. Treatment procedures included instruction, modeling, and role playing of social skills, as well as self-assessment, self-recording, and self-reinforcement for correct approximations of these skills. After 5 weeks of training, all subjects demonstrated substantial improvements in the classroom during the teacher's absence and when distracted by other students; however, transfer of social skills did not occur to the between-class setting until students were given explicit instruction to initiate self-managing procedures in this setting.