性别-学科刻板印象的加工模式实验研究

性别刻板印象是在继种族刻板印象之后,逐渐受到研究者们关注的热点问题。本文运用内隐联想测量法来探讨大学生性别一学科刻板印象的加工模式,采用3×2×2的三因素完全随机设计进行实验研究。结果表明：内隐和外显的性别-学科刻板印象出现了实验分离现象。三个不同的内隐测量组的被试均不同程度认为男女性在学习文科时能力相当,学习理科方面则男性明显优于女性。但在外显测试中被试们却认为两者在学习文理科时无差异。结论：内隐性别一学科刻板印象更倾向于一种自动化加工,采用的是“自上而下”的省时省力加工模式。而外显性别一学科刻板印象趋向于自动加工与控制加工相结合,是一种“自下而上”、“三思而答”的加工模式。     

Improving performance expectancies in stereotypic domains: task relevance and the reduction of stereotype threat

The experiments presented here extend previous research on reducing stereotype threat, along with examining the mediating role of performance expectancies. Women who generated shared academic characteristics between men and women predicted higher scores for themselves on a math test compared to the baseline and those who generated shared non‐academic characteristics or shared physical characteristics. No effects were found for male participants' performance expectancies on an English test. Extending the relevance of these findings for stereotype threat research, women completing a math test, who first completed the shared academic characteristics task, both expressed higher performance expectancies and greater accuracy in math performance than participants in all other conditions. A partially mediating role of performance expectancies in relation to task and math performance was also found. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Familiarity impacts person perception

We investigated the effects of familiarity on person perception. We predicted that familiarity would increase non‐analytic processing, reducing attention to and the impact of individuating information, and increasing the impact of category labels on judgments about a target person. In two studies participants read either incriminating or exculpatory individuating information about a defendant in a criminal case and made judgments of guilt. In Study 1, participants were subliminally exposed to the defendant's photo, another matched photo, or no photo before seeing the evidence. Participants familiar with the defendant's photo both processed and used the individuating information less. In Study 2, participants were subtly made familiar or not with the incriminating and exculpatory information itself, and the defendant was described either as a priest or as a skinhead. Familiarity with the information reduced attention to its content and also tended to increase reliance on category information in guilt judgments. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of linguistic abstraction on interpersonal distance

It is well known that people describe positive behaviors of others close to them (e.g., in‐group member, friend) in abstract terms, but with concrete terms in the case of people who they are not close to (e.g., out‐group member, enemy). In contrast, negative behaviors of people who we are close to are described in concrete terms, but in abstract terms for people who are distant. However, the communicative impact of such subtle differences in language use on a receiver who is also the actor of the behavior being described has never been addressed. We hypothesized and found that a positive abstract message compared to a positive concrete message leads to perceived proximity to the sender, while a negative abstract message compared to a negative concrete message leads to perceived distance. The implications of this study, which is the first to show the communicative impact of biased language use, are discussed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Developmental Perspective in Integral Counseling

The process of making meaning is a core determinant of human experience. Understanding this process, developmentally, is a vital part of integral counseling. In this article, the authors introduce the concept of ego development stages as increasingly complex and flexible systems of meaning making. An understanding of ego development stages can help counselors to assist clients in a way that recognizes that people not only come in different “types” but also differ significantly in the level of their meaning‐making capacity.     

数量化维度特征搜索的影响因素探索

有关数量化维度特征搜索的研究表明 ,目标搜索斜率 (反应时间对呈现项目数量函数的斜率 )是由目标与干扰子之间的差异决定的 ,然而以往研究中其差异的值取决于具体的实验条件。根据韦伯定律 ,笔者推测 ,目标搜索斜率应由目标与干扰子之间的相对差异 (C)决定 ,C为目标值 (T)与干扰子值 (D)的差值与该干扰子值的比值。当C值对应相等时 ,不同几何形状刺激的目标搜索斜率应无差异。为此笔者分别采用圆 (实验一 )和三角形 (实验二 )进行实验研究。实验结果支持了上述假设 ,并发现目标大于干扰子时的目标搜索斜率对C值的函数是单调递减函数     

双任务间隔对特征搜索方式的影响

采用RSVP序列,以两个实验探讨了双任务间隔对特征搜索方式的影响。要求试被首先辨认数字序列中包含的字母(任务一,T1),随后完成特征搜索任务(任务二,T2)。在实验一中,T2是检测在同时呈现的多个椭圆中是否有方向不一致的目标出现;在实验二中,T2是检测同时呈现的多个灰色圆点中是否有红色圆点出现。结果发现:随T1-T2间距缩短,T2的正确率显著下降;T2所含刺激数目的增加并未引起其正确率下降,即任务转换只影响特征搜索的绩效而未改变搜索方式,特征搜索仍以并行方式进行。根据动态控制理论,由于在本研究范式中两个任务之间存在任务转换过程,特征搜索应当为系列搜索。可见上述结果与动态控制理论不符。     

n-back任务下视觉工作记忆负荷研究

实验采用n-back范式,考察了视觉工作记忆负荷与反应时、辨别力和主观评价的关系,以及空间位置记忆负荷与图形记忆负荷的差异。结果发现,随着记忆负荷的增大,反应时延长,辨别力降低,主观负荷提高。视觉图形记忆任务的负荷水平高于视觉空间位置记忆任务的负荷水平;同时也为视觉图形记忆和视觉空间记忆具有不同的加工过程提供了证据。     

The effect of a major event on stereotyping: terrorist attacks in Israel and Israeli adolescents' perceptions of Palestinians,Jordanians and Arabs

This study examines the effect of a major event (terrorist attacks) on the stereotypic perceptions, attitudes and affects of 119 Israeli adolescents (56 males and 63 females of 5th and 8th grades) toward three target groups: (a) Palestinians, who still have conflictive relations with the Israelis (Palestinian extremists carried out the attacks), (b) Jordanians, who have peaceful relations with the Israelis and (c) Arabs, in general, who are considered a subcategory including Arabs of all nations. The questionnaires were administered to the same adolescents three times: during a relatively peaceful spell in Israeli–Palestinian relations; one day following two terrorist attacks, and three months thereafter. In the last administration adolescents' need for closure was also measured. Adolescents' perceptions, attitudes and affect toward the three target group were differentiated—relating to Palestinians most negatively and to Jordanians most positively. Also, following the terrorist attacks, stereotypic perceptions and attitudes changed in a negative direction, in relation to all the three groups; again with expressed differentiation among the three groups. In the third measurement, some measures remained negative, but some changed to be more positive. Only few effects of age were detected and several significant correlation with need for closure were found. These results indicate that stereotypes and attitudes toward outgroups are context‐dependent, influenced by events; thus they serve as ‘a seismograph’ to the quality of intergroup relations at any given time. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ethnic Diversity and the Use of Humor in Counseling: Appropriate or Inappropriate?

Humor can reflect the healthy release of feelings during the counseling process, the type of emotional release that leads to significant therapeutic gains. It can also be a disturbing distraction, possibly causing early termination, if used inappropriately. Counselors need to exert particular caution before attempting to apply humor in working with a client from a culture different from the counselor's. This article explores the available literature and offers contributions on the subject from 4 “ethnically diverse” perspectives. Finally, a general approach based on existential theory is presented along with 5 general conditions to ascertain the appropriate use of humor.