Repetition and trace interaction: Superadditivity

This paper reports five experiments that examined memory for repeated and unrepeated pairs of words. In over 40 experimental comparisons, cued recall of the repeated pairs was better than it would have been if the words had been repeated as independent cognitive events. Therefore, memory traces do interact with other traces of the same nominal items. Our account of superadditive recall is that some encodings fail on the final test because they lack a needed piece of information. Specifically, some need additional item-specific information to enable access by the cue, and some need relational information for recall of the target. The second trial is an implicit test of memory, whose results give the system a heuristic basis for standing pat or doing more encoding. If a retrieved encoding needs less than a new one to become a success, it has a good chance of becoming a success, and recall is superadditive. However, if the ease of retrieving the encoding is for the wrong reasons, such as massed repetition, the item remains a failure, and recall is subadditive.     

Sex role development as a function of college experiences

The purpose was to evaluate the effect of college experiences on androgyny. One hundred and thirty-nine freshman and 57 senior women completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) as well as measures to assess precollege variables, including a biographical questionnaire, a life experience survey, a measure of parental identification, and parental sex role inventories. In addition, seniors completed measures that assessed college experiences. Almost all of the scales on the two precollege questionnaires that measured parental variables were found related to student's sex role. Consequently, all remaining relationships with sex role were examined with and without controlling for these parental scales. None of the variables that measured college experiences were found to be significantly related to sex role. The results did not support the hypothesis that seniors would assume a more masculine sex role than freshmen. However, the seniors did obtain significantly lower scores than freshmen on the BSRI Femininity scale.     

Another look at gender-related differences in leadership behavior

This investigation examined self-related behavioral differences in terms of broad leadership styles using a methodology that minimized biases inherent in research designs previously employed to investigate this area. Subjects consisted of 40 males and 41 females who served in the role of leader, and who instructed both a male and a female subordinate in a card-sorting task. Experimental sessions were tape-recorded and transcribed, after which judges classified word phrases into various language categories. Factor analysis of the language categories yielded two factors of verbal behavior within a leadership situation: a socially oriented style and a task-oriented style. In contrast to generally accepted stereotypes, results indicated that within the present experimental context male leaders preferred to use phrases that indicated a more social style than female leaders. However, both male and female leaders used language that indicated a task-oriented approach to a significantly greater degree when instructing a female rather than a male subordinate. Implications and interpretations of the results are discussed.     

Communication deviances: a comparison between parents of learning-disabled and normally achieving students

This study explored the relationship between parents' communication deviances and children's placement in a learning disability class. Participants were the parents of 30 learning-disabled students and 30 average students attending junior high school. Samples of communication were taken from parents' participation in an experimental task. Using a "blind" sorting procedure, raters were able to identify 87% of the learning-disabled students' parents by their high communication deviance scores and 77% of the average students' parents by their low communication deviance scores on the experimental communication task (p less than or equal to .0001). Implications for future research on the etiology and remediation of learning disabilities are discussed.     

PROVIDING A MORE APPROPRIATE EDUCATION FOR SEVERELY HANDICAPPED PERSONS: INCREASING AND VALIDATING FUNCTIONAL CLASSROOM TASKS

We evaluated a teacher training and supervision program for increasing the involvement of severely handicapped adolescents and adults in functional educational tasks. The program, consisting of a brief in-service followed by supervisory prompts and feedback, was accompanied by large increases in functional tasks in three classrooms. In addition, generalized increases occurred during nontargeted times in the classroom and the changes during both the targeted and nontargeted times were maintained over a 44–45 week period. In two subsequent experiments, surveys provided social validation for the criteria for functional versus nonfunctional tasks in that: (a) relevant individuals reliably categorized functional tasks as representing typical living, work, social, and leisure situations and (b) experienced clinicians consistently rated tasks previously categorized as functional as being more useful for severely handicapped persons than tasks categorized as nonfunctional. Results are discussed in terms of the relationship of functional classroom tasks in the overall provision of appropriate educational services for severely handicapped students.     

Peer relationships in ADDH and normal children: A developmental analysis of peer and teacher ratings

Peer and teacher perceptions of younger and older ADDH and normal children were compared. Peer nominations on the Pupil Evaluation Inventory revealed that ADDH children received more nominations on the Aggression factor and fewer on the Likability factor. ADDH boys received more nominations on the Withdrawal factor. Generally, older children received fewer nominations, but age did not interact with diagnosis; that is, younger and older ADDH children were perceived by peers as equally deviant. Discriminant analyses showed that peer ratings were useful in discriminating between ADDH and normal boys, but not between ADDH and normal girls. Teacher ratings of peer behavior suggested that older ADDH girls were perceived as less disturbed than younger girls. However, teacher ratings of boys revealed no age by diagnosis interactions. Low to moderate correlations were found between peer and teacher ratings of ADDH boys, and the pattern of relationship varied with age.During the writing of this report, Charlotte Johnston was supported by a Sir James Lougheed Fellowship, Alberta Heritage Scholarship Fund.     

Masculine or feminine gender identity in boys: Developmental differences between two diverse family groups

Early developmental experiences of 66 boys, ages 4–11, who preferred the clothes, toys, and companionship of girls, preferentially role-played as females, and stated their wish to be girls, were compared with those of 56 conventionally masculine boys, selected on the basis of matched demographic features of their families. The “feminine” boys were more often described as having been “beautiful” infants, and were hospitalized more often during their early years. Mothers reported less physical contact with the “feminine” sons in the first years and less time spent with these sons. Fathers also reported spending less time with “feminine” sons during the first years. There was no difference between groups of parents regarding their wish for a girl or a boy during the pregnancy with this son. There were no major distinctions between the two groups of parents on marital role division or marital satisfaction.     

What did I eat yesterday? Determinants of accuracy in 24-hour food memories

Large-scale diet-related epidemiological work relies on the quality of self-reported food consumption. As this epidemiological work forms the basis of knowledge of the relationship of diet to disease, it is essential that the self-reports of personal diet are understood. It is generally accepted that foods consumed are under-reported, even over as short a period as 24 hours. However, little is known about the potential systematic biases that may affect the quality of self-reported food intake. The current study examines the accuracy of memories of the consumption of snack foods eaten in the previous 24 hours and investigates factors that may bias these memories. All participants had previously participated in a randomized intervention trial to lower dietary fat intake to 20 per cent of calories. Fifty-six women (intervention and control) tasted eight snack foods in a laboratory setting. They were telephoned a day later and asked to recall the type of snack foods (M&Ms, pretzels, etc.) and the quantity of each food they consumed. Subjects in general under-reported the number of selections and the quantity of each item consumed. Women who accurately recalled an item, reported more liking for that item compared to those who forgot the item. Women currently maintaining a low-fat diet were less accurate in their recall of low-fat items than women on a high-fat diet. Low-fat eaters, however, may be slightly better at recalling how much of certain foods they consumed. Results have implications for survey research and understanding the psychological influences on reports of food consumption used in large-scale diet studies.