Self-consciousness, outcome expectancy, and persistence

A study investigated persistence as a function of two variables: the disposition to be self-attentive (called private self-consciousness) and outcome feedback on a prior task that was described as closely related to the target task. More specifically, subjects first completed a concealed-figures test and were told that their performances were either very good or very poor. The second test, which ostensibly measured the same abilities, was an insolvable design problem that is commonly used to measure persistence. Feedback concerning prior outcomes had a direct influence on expectancies for the second task, but persistence on that task was a joint function of feedback and self-consciousness. That is, favorable feedback led to greater persistence than did unfavorable feedback, but only among subjects high in self-consciousness. This finding replicates and extends the results of several previous studies. Discussion centers on the relationship between the present research and an earlier experiment which yielded apparently different results.     

The design,development, and implementation of a microprocessor-based ECG analysis system

This paper describes the research effort to design, develop, and implement a microprocessor-based ECG data acquisition, reduction, and analysis system for operation in real-time. This unit can be attached to three-channel ECG carts and provide an immediate on-site analysis. The basic design and development efforts include (1) the data acquisition, reduction, and matrix assembly, (2) ECG arrhythmia, P-wave, and axis analysis, (3) ECG contour analysis, and (4) a real-time three-channel data acquisition unit. Decision tables are used in the analysis. The implementation of these projects into a small microprocessor-based unit coupled to a three-channel recorder is now in progress. This system, coupled with a small printer, will provide immediate on-site ECG analysis for most cardiovascular dysfunctions.     

A software system for real-time control of psychological experiments

This paper describes an all-purpose experimental system, “APES,” for use in a microprocessor-controlled behavioral pharmacology laboratory. APES is an assembly language program that can run on any of the DEC PDP-11 family processors under an RT-11 single-job operating system. Its main purpose is the real-time control of psychological experimentation. The capabilities of the system are: (1) system generation of all operant or Pavlovian conditioning paradigms, (2) collection and storage of both behavioral and physiological data in a machine-readable format for later statistical analysis, and (3) operation that can be accomplished by individuals who have no computer programming experience.     

Internal standards revisited: Effects of social comparisons and expectancies on judgments of fairness and satisfaction

Two studies examined the effect of two comparison processes on perceptions of fairness and satisfaction. Rewards relative to others (social comparison) and relative to expectancies (expectancy comparison) were orthogonally varied while absolute level of reward was held constant. Both studies showed, contrary to previous theory, that only social comparisons are related to perceived fairness, yet both comparisons are significantly related to satisfaction in an additive manner. Social comparisons explained more variation in satisfaction and dominated responses to more specific measures of affect. Partial support for specific predictions derived from equity theory and expectancy theory are reported. The overall results are interpreted as demonstrating the importance of the salience of frames of reference in reward evaluation.Estabilished practices create expectations, and since men have traditionally received greater rewards than women for the same services, they expect disproportionate rewards and tend to be disappointed if they do not get them. But these expectations have nothing to do with investments, and neither are they rooted in a conception of justice. (Blau, 1964, p. 195)     

Anticipation of future interaction and the bystander effect

Previous research suggests that people are slower to offer help in an emergency when there are other witnesses than when there are not. This finding has come to be known as the bystander effect. In research that has demonstrated this effect, however, the other witnesses were invariably anonymous others who had no relationship with the subject and with whom the subject probably did not expect to interact again. The present research examined the hypothesis that the expectation of participating in subsequent face-to-face interaction with other bystanders would cause the bystander effect to be minimized. Female college students were led to believe either that they would have no personal contact with the other participants in an ostensible group discussion, or that the participants would be involved in a later face-to-face discussion session. Each subject then participated in what she believed to be an anonymous discussion via intercoms, involving either one person or five persons beside herself. During this period, an ostensible co-subject experienced a choking fit. Help was offered more quickly among subjects who expected future interaction than among those who did not. In the no future interaction condition, latencies to help were longer in six-member than in two-member groups, but the comparable difference, although in the same direction, was not reliable among subjects who expected interaction. Presence of male “co-subjects” in an exploratory condition failed to inhibit helping. Discussion centers on the broader implications of the findings.     

Gaze and emotional expression: The effects of message positivity-negativity and emotional intensity

The effects of emotional positivity-negativity and emotional intensity on actor's gaze were examined by simulating emotional situations to a camera. Female subjects were first asked to act out a neutral message as if they were speaking to a person to obtain a baseline for direct gaze. Subjects were then asked to perform a positive or a negative message to the camera. Half the subjects attempted to express the message with strong emotion; half expressed it with weak, ambivalent emotion. As expected, it was found that more direct gaze was maintained when expressing strong emotion. Whether the message was positive or negative did not affect gaze direction. The results were discussed in relation to the dimensions of nonverbal communication.     

Assessment of social skills using a Thurstone Equal-Appearing Interval scale

Although Likert ratings of social skill are widely used in behavioral assessment, such ratings may have limited replicability potential and social validity. The present study compared the reliability of Likert and Thurstone Equal-Appearing Interval scales. The Thurstone-derived scale was slightly more reliable than its Likert counterpart. Moreover, the empirical and clinical potential of Thurstone scaling substantially exceeds that of Likert and other rating methods.