THE STRUCTURE AND PROCESS OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT*

In the present article, a theory of intellectual development is summarized which attempts to integrate the general structural approach pioneered by Piaget, with the more recent ‘process’ oriented approaches proposed by information processing theorists on the one hand, and by Pascual-Leone (in his M-Operator theory) on the other. The resultant theory is one which proposes that children's control structures progress through four general stages in the course of their development, with three recursive substages being identifiable at each. Transition to a new stage of development occurs as a result of the hierarchical integration of two qualitatively distinct control structures, each one of which was assembled and consolidated towards the end of the previous stage. By contrast, progress within a stage occurs as a result of the step-wise attention to, and non-hierarchical integration of, an increasing number of similar elements, each one of which was assembled towards the beginning of the new stage. The variable that determines the maximum rate at which within-stage progress can take place is the size of the child's working memory, which is seen as growing in response to both maturational and experiential variables. A similar process is seen as determining the timing of across-stage transitions; however, this process is as yet less well articulated. Several different sorts of empirical evidence have been gathered so far, to support the overall structure of the theory. After this evidence is described and illustrated, the article concludes with a summary of the theory in postulate form.     

PARENT EDUCATION PROJECT II. INCREASING STIMULATING INTERACTIONS OF DEVELOP MENTALLY HANDICAPPED MOTHERS

Two studies are reported on the assessment and training of parent-child interactional skills in developmentally handicapped mothers. Study 1 compared the interactions of eight developmentally handicapped versus eight nonhandicapped mothers during play with their young (6–25 months) children. Results showed that the former group generally interacted much less with their children and that they were less likely to praise appropriate child behavior and imitate child vocalizations. Study 2 attempted to remediate these deficits, using a training package consisting of discussion, modeling, feedback, social reinforcement, and self-recording. Results showed, first, that the training did increase the targeted skills to well within the range found for the nonhandicapped mothers. Second, training effects generalized from the group instructional setting to the mothers' own homes. Third, newly acquired skills were generally maintained at or above levels found for the nonhandicapped mothers over a 5- to 10-month follow-up period. Finally, all seven children showed increases in vocalizations concomitant with parent training. The results suggest that developmentally handicapped mothers can be taught to provide more effective and stimulating interactions to their young children.     

Failure of conservation training of disadvantaged black teenagers: a neo-Piagetian interpretation.

From a structural point of view, conservation tasks resemble Witkin's field-dependence situations. According to our neo-Piagetian theory, therefore, the failure of certain disadvantaged black teenagers to profit from conservation training may be related to their field dependence.     

Human observing: Maintained by stimuli correlated with reinforcement but not extinction

College students received points exchangeable for money (reinforcement) on a variable-time 60-second schedule that alternated randomly with an extinction component. Subjects were informed that responding would not influence either the rate or distribution of reinforcement. Instead, presses on either of two levers (“observing responses”) produced stimuli. In each of four experiments, stimuli positively correlated with reinforcement and/or stimuli uncorrelated with reinforcement were each chosen over stimuli correlated with extinction. These results are consistent with prior results from pigeons in supporting the conditioned-reinforcement hypothesis of observing and in not supporting the uncertainty-reduction hypothesis.     

Operational efficiency and the growth of short-term memory span

Four studies are reported which link developmental increases in memory span with developmental increases in operational speed or efficiency. In the first, a linear relationship is demonstrated between increases in word span and increases in speed of word repetition. In the second, adults and 6-year-olds are equated on speed of word repetition, by manipulating word familiarity. It is shown that their word spans are no longer different under these conditions. Similar findings are then reported for a test of M space called “Counting Span.” First, a linear relationship is demonstrated between increases in Counting Span and increases in speed of counting. Next, adults and 6-year-olds are equated on speed of counting, by forcing adults to count in an unfamiliar language. It is shown that their counting spans are no longer different under these conditions. The conclusion is that developmental increases in memory span do not result from increases in total processing space. Rather, with development, basic operations become faster and more efficient. This means that they require less processing space, and that more space becomes available for storage as a result.     

Can the positive effects of inspiration be extended to different domains?

It is presently unknown whether inspiration extends across different domains: can a salesperson, for example, be inspired by a successful athlete? The present study investigated whether inspirational content must be relevant to a subsequent task to improve performance. Participants (N = 70) wrote about a time they felt inspired in a sporting context (domain‐relevant), creative context (domain‐irrelevant); or amused (positive control). Participants then held a handgrip, with the option of giving up or continuing to exhaustion. Regardless of the relevance of the inspirational content to the performance task, inspired participants were less likely to give up than controls. This is the first research to show that the benefits of inspiration reach beyond the domain defined by the inspiring event.     

Breeding cycle aggression in domesticated zebra finches (Poephila guttata)

Patterns of breeding cycle aggressive behavior were examined in colonies of domesticated zebra finches (Poephila guttata). Aggressive behaviors of zebra finch pairs were low during non-nesting periods but were maintained at high levels during the three nesting periods: the incubating, hatching, and nestling periods. Defense of the nest site was the prominent functional category of aggression, followed by defense of individual distance. Defense of mate, defense of young, and defense of nesting material rarely occurred. Male and female members of pair bonds shared the duties of defense of the nest site and parental care. During observation times males exhibited greater frequencies of aggressive actions throughout the breeding cycle and females spent a greater amount of time in the nest during the three nesting periods. The pattern and functional categories of aggressive behavior in the zebra finch colonies correspond most closely to the nest site defense hypothesis for the evolution of breeding season aggression.     

Animation and the location of beauty

This paper discusses the development of animation and imaginative activity in a case in which there has been previous severe deprivation. Clinical material from work with an 8-year-old boy will illustrate how omnipotent behaviour, which has the function of keeping fear and feeling from consciousness, can give way to imaginative interaction with the environment. I suggest that, when internal objects have been frozen, it may be safer for the child to see animation outside the room. This may be a necessary stage before a child can begin to play with the therapist inside the room. I am using the term 'animation' in the sense of new imaginative play that has been stimulated by an apprehension of beauty in nature. This is contrasted with driven manic defending against awareness of self and others.     

Dehumanizing but competent: The impact of gender,illness type,and emotional expressiveness on patient perceptions of doctors

This study is the first attempt to investigate men's and women's anticipated reactions to a consultation with a doctor holding either a dehumanizing or humanistic approach to patient treatment. Participants (N = 375) read a vignette depicting a doctor's treatment philosophy—emphasizing either the metaphor of the body as a machine (dehumanizing condition) or emphasizing individual humanness (humanizing condition). They then imagined consulting the doctor about a psychological or physical illness. Although, medical dehumanization had undesirable consequences, some men rated the dehumanizing doctor as more competent than the humanizing doctor. These were men who were (a) emotionally expressive and seeking help for a psychological illness, and (b) men low in emotional expressiveness seeking help for a physical illness.