Theism, Evolutionary Epistemology, and Two Theories of Truth

In Michael Ruse's recent publications, such as Taking Darwin Seriously (1998) and Evolutionary Naturalism (1995), he has advocated a certain sort of evolutionary epistemology and has argued that it implies a rejection of metaphysical realism (MR) in favor of a position that he calls "internal realism" (IR). Additionally, he has maintained that, insofar as his evolutionary epistemology implies a rejection of MR in favor of IR, it escapes the kind of argument against naturalism that Alvin Plantinga makes in his Warrant and Proper Function (1993). In this article I explain the relevant views and arguments of Ruse and Plantinga, and I critically engage with Ruse's views, arguing that (1) his case for rejecting MR has no essential connection to evolutionary considerations; (2) his case for rejecting MR depends upon internalist assumptions about the nature of knowledge that are in need of some kind of defense; and (3) given his implicit internalism and his commitment to IR, his argument for rejecting MR can be used against his IR.     

Self-esteem, construal, and comparisons with the self, friends, and peers

Extending the better than average effect, 3 studies examined self-, friend, and peer comparisons of personal attributes. Participants rated themselves as better off than friends, who they rated as superior to generalized peers. The exception was in direct comparisons, where the self and friends were not strongly differentiated on unambiguous negative attributes. Self-esteem and construal played moderating roles, with persons with high self-esteem (HSEs) exploiting both ambiguous positive and ambiguous negative traits to favor themselves. Persons lower in self-esteem exploited ambiguous positive traits in their favor but did not exploit ambiguous negative traits. Across self-esteem level, ratings of friends versus peers were exaggerated when attributes were ambiguous. HSEs seemed to take advantage of ambiguity more consistently to present favorable self-views; people with low self-esteem used ambiguity to favor their friends but were reluctant to minimize their own faults.     

Maternal prenatal stress and 4-6 year old children's salivary cortisol concentrations pre- and post-vaccination

In this study influences of maternal prenatal stress on the cortisol reactions of children to a vaccination were determined. Prenatal stress at around 16 weeks of gestation was measured through questionnaires and a cortisol day curve. Cortisol reactions were determined preceding and following the vaccination. A total of 24 children (age between 3.11 and 5.9 years, mean age 4.9 years) and their mothers participated in this study. Multilevel analysis (hierarchical linear modelling) was used to analyze the data. Children of mothers who had higher concentrations of morning cortisol during pregnancy had higher concentrations of cortisol as compared to children of mothers who had lower concentrations of morning cortisol. Furthermore, more daily hassles and a higher level of fear of bearing a handicapped child during pregnancy were associated with higher concentrations of cortisol in the children.     

Field dependence-independence (FDI) cognitive style: an analysis of attentional functioning

Previous research has indicated that field-dependent children display poorer performance than field-independent children in almost all academic subjects and cognitive tasks. However, the processes underlying this poorer performance remain unclear. The present study aimed to assess whether children with different FDI cognitive styles show differences in performance of tasks measuring aspects of attentional functioning. Specifically, 149 children aged 8 - 11 years were classified according to FDI cognitive style (field-dependent, intermediate, or field-independent), and to storage capacity (Digits Forward Test), verbal working memory (Digits Backward Test), capacity to focus, shift, and maintain attention (Digit Symbol Test), and capacity for sustained attention (Visual Search and Attention Test). Field-independent children displayed better performance than intermediate and field-dependent children on all tests except the Digits Forward Test. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.     

Handedness, emotional problems, and schizotypy

The purpose of this study was to analyse the relationship between emotional or behavioural problems and schizotypy. An assessment of handedness and schizotypal personality traits were also performed by means of the Thinking and Perceptual Style Questionnaire, the Multidimensional Schizotypal Traits Questionnaire, the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory, and the Youth Self-Report. The sample comprised 296 participants with a mean age of 13.8 and a standard deviation of 1.34. Data indicate that adolescents with high scores on psychometric factors of schizotypy displayed higher patterns of problem behaviours as well as a significant difference in all the core factors of the Youth Self-Report, compared to those who scored low on these measures. Discriminant analysis showed that the core factors of the Youth Self-Report correctly classified 84% of the adolescents with high or low scores on psychometric schizotypy. Lastly, no significant association between the factors of schizotypy and left-handedness, right-handedness, or mixed-handedness was found.     

A link between role of two prefrontal areas in immediate memory and in long-term memory consolidation

The dorsolateral and medial prefrontal cortex are critical for immediate memory processing. The possibility has been raised that those two areas may also contribute to long-term memory formation. Here, we studied the role of specific receptors in dorsolateral and medial prefrontal cortex in immediate and in long-term memory formation of one-trial inhibitory avoidance. Four different specific receptor ligands were infused into these two areas: the dopamine D1 receptor antagonist, SCH23390, the GABA(A) receptor agonist, muscimol, the AMPA glutamatergic receptor antagonist, ciano-nitro-quinoxaline-dione (CNQX), and the NMDA glutamatergic receptor antagonist, aminophosphonovaleric acid (AP5). In all cases the doses used had been previously shown to affect immediate or long-term memory. In the experiments on immediate memory the drugs were given 5 min before training and the animals were tested 3s post-training. These animals were then also tested 24h later for long-term memory. The effect of the treatments on long-term memory was studied by their infusion 0, 90, 180 or 270 min post-training, testing the animals 24h after training. Immediate memory was inhibited by SCH23390, muscimol and CNQX, but not by AP5, given into any of the two subregions. Long-term memory formation was inhibited by SCH23390, muscimol and CNQX, but not by AP5, given pre-training or 0, 90 or 180 but not 270 min post-training into the dorsolateral region; or 90 but not 0 or 180 min post-training into the medial region. Thus, there is a time- and receptor-dependent correlation in the two areas between their role in immediate and in long-term memory processing. Both roles require intact glutamate AMPA and dopamine D1 receptors, are inhibited by GABAergic synapses, and are unaffected by AP5. In the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex the link between immediate and long-term memory appears to be direct; in the medial area the link suffers a 90 min delay.     

An integrated device to evaluate a driver’s functional state

In the field of cognitive ergonomics, research on car drivers requires multimodal in-vehicle systems for recording not only driving-related behavior, but also contextual information from their surroundings. In addition, reliable information concerning a driver’s functional state should be obtained. In this article, we describe an integrated device simultaneously recording specific physiological data, video recordings of the driver and environment, parameters from the vehicle, and contextual data. Physiological signals from the autonomic nervous system provide objective and quantitative information on the driver’s alertness and his/her ability to process specific driving-related stimuli or other nonspecific information. Consequently, recorded physiological responses can be related to individual driving events. Electrodermal and cardiac activities are sensitive to time-dependent variations in arousal level and to certain external stimuli, so there is great interest in studying drivers’ behavior via measured physiological signals that have been established as suitable behavioral indicators. The present integrated device is capable of processing the relevant indices from raw measured data in real time.     

Motor acquisition rate in Brazilian infants

This study used the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) with the aim of characterizing motor acquisition rate in 70 healthy 0–6‐month‐old Brazilian infants, as well as comparing both emergence (initial age) and establishment (final age) of each skill between the study sample and the AIMS normative data. New motor skills were continuously acquired from 0 to 6 months of age by the Brazilian infants, but their acquisition rate was non‐linear. When compared to the AIMS sample, Brazilian infants achieved lower percentiles, and their initial age to acquire skills requiring greater antigravity demand was higher. In contrast, Brazilian infants stopped exhibiting primitive patterns earlier, and their final age to acquire antigravity skills was lower. These differences in motor development are suggested to be a consequence of different parental practices and not necessarily indicate motor delay. Thus, the AIMS normative values should be adapted to cultural particularities so as to avoid that infants are misclassified as at risk for motor delay. Furthermore, an adequate assessment of motor development should consider not only the age at which a skill is emerged, but also the age at which such a skill is established in the infant's motor repertoire. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Developmental stimulation in child care centers contributes to young infants’ cognitive development

This study examined whether the quality of caregiver behavior in child care centers contributes to infant cognitive development at 9 months of age. Sixty-four infants (34 boys) were observed with their primary caregivers in child care centers at 3, 6, and 9 months of age. Caregiver behavior was rated for sensitivity and for stimulation of infant development during one-to-one caregiving interactions. Infant cognitive development was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-II (Mental Development Index). Higher levels of developmental stimulation in the centers predicted higher levels of infant cognitive development at 9 months, beyond infant cognitive development at 3 months (just before entering child care), parental education, and maternal sensitivity. The results suggest that even small increases in developmental stimulation provided in child care centers in the first year of life may foster infants’ cognitive development.