Understanding Social Factors in the Context of Trauma: Implications for Measurement and Intervention

One of the most important factors predicting the presence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after trauma exposure is social support, yet the construct is theoretically complex and remains variably defined. To better inform the trauma literature on the impact of social factors, a theoretical review of social support and PTSD was conducted, and implications for measurement and intervention are outlined. Type of trauma, sex of participant, timing of social support, and support providers are described as significant moderators of the association between social factors and PTSD. The developmental trajectory of the association between social factors and PTSD occurrence is outlined, emphasizing the positive influence of social support initially following trauma, and the deterioration effect of PTSD symptoms on social support over the longer term. Possibilities for future research and intervention at multiple levels and at different time points are described.     

Mapping the apetitive and aversive systems with emotional pictures using a block-design fMRI procedure

Negative emotional pictures from the International Affective Pictures System (IAPS) have been successful in mapping brain areas related to the aversive system. However, the capacity of positive emotional pictures to study the brain areas related to the appetitive system (i.e., nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex) is less established. In this study, we used a block fMRI design to investigate this issue, including emotional pictures as background while participants performed a vowel-consonant discrimination task. Importantly, participants were heterosexual males and all positive pictures were related to erotic couples, opposite-sex erotica, or romantic scenes. Negative pictures were similar to those used in previous studies. Results were consistent with previous studies using event-related designs, showing activation of amygdala, lateral prefrontal cortex, and occipito-temporal areas, but positive pictures showed a significant activation in the left nucleus accumbens. These findings provide evidence of the utility of block designs in emotional research (positive emotional pictures).     

Defensive Reactions to Masculinity Threat: More Negative Affect Toward Effeminate (but not Masculine) Gay Men

We examined whether, due to men’s desire to reject stereotypically feminine traits in themselves, a masculinity threat would elicit negative affect toward effeminate, but not masculine gay men. Fifty-three male undergraduates from the United States received bogus feedback that they had either a “masculine” or “feminine” personality before rating affect toward two “types” of gay men: effeminate and masculine. Results were consistent with the notion that defensive reactions target groups stereotyped as having the specific traits perceivers wish to deny in themselves: masculinity threat selectively increased negative affect toward effeminate, but not masculine, gay men. Thus, gay men who exhibit feminine traits may be at particular risk from men whose masculinity is threatened.     

A latent variable modeling approach to identifying subtypes of serious and violent female juvenile offenders

Females have recently become an important population in research related to serious and violent juvenile offending. Although a small body of research exists on girls in the deep end of the system, very few studies have examined the degree of heterogeneity within high-risk female samples. This study applied latent class analysis (LCA) to identify subgroups of female juvenile offenders based on their self-report of offending profiles (N=133). Results supported a three-class solution with subgroups characterized by patterns of 'violent and delinquent', 'delinquency only', and 'low' offending patterns. The LCA solution was replicated in an independent sample of high-risk females. The 'violent and delinquent' class was characterized by significantly higher rates of DSM-IV diagnoses for internalizing disorders, affect dysregulation, exposure to violence (within the home, school and neighborhood), and familial histories of criminality. Implications for future research, policy and clinical practice are discussed.     

Age-related changes in deferred imitation from television by 6- to 18-month-olds

During the second year of life, infants exhibit a video deficit effect. That is, they learn significantly less from a televised demonstration than they learn from a live demonstration. We predicted that repeated exposure to televised demonstrations would increase imitation from television, thereby reducing the video deficit effect. Independent groups of 6- to 18-month-olds were exposed to live or videotaped demonstrations of target actions. Imitation of the target actions was measured 24 hours later. The video segment duration was twice that of the live presentation. Doubling exposure ameliorated the video deficit effect for 12-month-olds but not for 15- and 18-month-olds. The 6-month-olds imitated from television but did not demonstrate a video deficit effect at all, learning equally well from a live and video demonstration. Findings are discussed in terms of the perceptual impoverishment theory and the dual representation theory.     

Survey Nonrespondents as Bad Soldiers: Examining the relationship between organizational citizenship and survey response behavior

The present paper examines whether organizational survey response behavior relates to organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). In Study 1, we examined the relationship between OCB dimensions and survey completion intentions in a field setting (n=228). In Study 2, we compared respondents and different groups of nonrespondents on OCB dimensions using an experimental design in a university setting (n=622). Survey response and OCBs were found to be related. OCB research may suffer from nonresponse bias, with organizational surveys failing to capture the opinions of those least likely to engage in OCBs.     

“I Want to Know More!”: Children Are Sensitive to Explanation Quality When Exploring New Information

When someone encounters an explanation perceived as weak, this may lead to a feeling of deprivation or tension that can be resolved by engaging in additional learning. This study examined to what extent children respond to weak explanations by seeking additional learning opportunities. Seven‐ to ten‐year‐olds (N = 81) explored questions and explanations (circular or mechanistic) about 12 animals using a novel Android tablet application. After rating the quality of an initial explanation, children could request and receive additional information or return to the main menu to choose a new animal to explore. Consistent with past research, there were both developmental and IQ‐related differences in how children evaluated explanation quality. But across development, children were more likely to request additional information in response to circular explanations than mechanistic explanations. Importantly, children were also more likely to request additional information in direct response to explanations that they themselves had assigned low ratings, regardless of explanation type. In addition, there was significant variability in both children's explanation evaluation and their exploration, suggesting important directions for future research. The findings support the deprivation theory of curiosity and offer implications for education.     

An examination of the Clinical Impairment Assessment among women at high risk for eating disorder onset

Identifying measures that reliably and validly assess clinical impairment has important implications for eating disorder (ED) diagnosis and treatment. The current study examined the psychometric properties of the Clinical Impairment Assessment (CIA) in women at high risk for ED onset. Participants were 543 women (20.6 ± 2.0 years) who were classified into one of three ED categories: clinical ED, high risk for ED onset, and low risk control. Among high risk women, the CIA demonstrated high internal consistency (α = 0.93) and good convergent validity with disordered eating attitudes (rs = 0.27-0.68, ps < 0.001). Examination of the CIA's discriminant validity revealed that CIA global scores were highest among women with a clinical ED (17.7 ± 10.7) followed by high risk women (10.6 ± 8.5) and low risk controls (3.0 ± 3.3), respectively (p < 0.001). High risk women reporting behavioral indices of ED psychopathology (objective and/or subjective binge episodes, purging behaviors, driven exercise, and ED treatment history) had higher CIA global scores than those without such indices (ps < 0.05), suggesting good criterion validity. These data establish the first norms for the CIA in a United States sample. The CIA is psychometrically sound among high risk women, and heightened levels of impairment among these individuals as compared to low risk women verify the relevance of early intervention efforts.     

Role of the sympathetic nervous system in cerebrovascular responses to air-jet stress in rats

This study examined the role of sympathetic nerves in the control of cerebral hemodynamics during air-jet stress. In adult male Sprague-Dawley rats, blood flow velocity (pulsed Doppler) was measured in both internal carotid arteries 1 week after excision of one superior cervical ganglion. Blood pressure (BP) and carotid blood flows (CBFs) were simultaneously recorded during exposure to air-jet stress. In 5 out of 13 rats, stress was applied after β(2)-adrenoceptor blockade with ICI 118551 (0.4 mg/kg, then 0.2 mg/kg/h, i.v). Stress evoked an immediate rise in BP, CBFs, and vascular conductances. Vasodilatation was much larger on the denervated side than on the intact side (mean ± SEM: 78 ± 7 versus 19 ± 4%; P < 0.02) and lasted about 10 s. Thereafter, blood flows returned to or near normal and showed parallel variations while BP remained elevated. There was, therefore, a net vasoconstriction on both sides. In ICI 118551-treated rats, the initial vasodilatation was not significantly reduced on the denervated side (64 ± 4%), but the subsequent vasoconstriction was enhanced (P < 0.05) on both sides. In conclusion, air-jet stress evokes an immediate, short-lasting vasodilatation through a mechanism unrelated to β(2)-adrenoceptor stimulation. Sympathetic nerves powerfully limit this phenomenon, and thus contribute to protect the cerebral circulation from stress-induced BP surges.     

THE EFFECTS OF RESPONSE INTERRUPTION AND REDIRECTION (RIRD) AND DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT ON VOCAL STEREOTYPY AND APPROPRIATE VOCALIZATIONS

The relation between contextually appropriate vocalizations (AV) and vocal stereotypy (VS) has yet to be established within the response interruption and redirection (RIRD) literature. RIRD may promote AV by suppressing VS and/or by functioning as incompatible responses. The occurrence of VS and AV was assessed during baseline, RIRD alone, and RIRD combined with a differential reinforcement system for AV (RIRD + DRI) for a 5‐year‐old child with autism. Results showed an increase in AV once RIRD was implemented and further increases in AV and decreases in stereotypy when the token system of reinforcement for AV was implemented. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.