Binocular vision and spatial perception in 4- and 5-month-old infants

Four experiments investigated the relation between the development of binocular vision and infant spatial perception. Experiments 1 and 2 compared monocular and binocular depth perception in 4- and 5-month-old infants. Infants in both age groups reached more consistently for the nearer of two objects under binocular viewing conditions than under monocular viewing conditions. Experiments 3 and 4 investigated whether the superiority of binocular depth perception in 4-month-olds is related to the development of sensitivity to binocular disparity. Under binocular viewing conditions in Experiment 3, infants identified as disparity-sensitive reached more consistently for the nearer object than did infants identified as disparity-insensitive. The two groups' performances did not differ under monocular viewing conditions. These results suggest that, binocularly, the disparity-sensitive infants perceived the objects' distances more accurately than did the disparity-insensitive infants. In Experiment 4, infants were habituated to an object, then presented with the same object and a novel object that differed only in size. Disparity-sensitive infants showed size constancy by recovering from habituation when viewing the novel object. Disparity-insensitive infants did not show clear evidence of size constancy. These findings suggest that the development of sensitivity to binocular disparity is accompanied by a substantial increase in the accuracy of infant spatial perception.     

Temporal integration and vibrotactile backward masking

Subjects were presented with vibrotactile target patterns to their left index fingertips. The target patterns varied in the number of line segments that they contained and were presented in the presence or absence of a backward-masking stimulus. The stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between the target and masker was varied. In an identification task, subjects' errors indicated that the effect of the masker at brief SOAs was to increase the perceived number of line segments in the target. This effect diminished with increasing SOA, and at the longest SOAs subjects confused targets with patterns containing the same number of line segments but varying in how the line segments were related. In an estimation task, the effect of the masker was to increase the number of line segments estimated to be contained in the target pattern. The effect of the masker at brief SOAs is discussed in terms of an integration theory of vibrotactile backward masking. At longer SOAs, the results suggest that the masker may interfere with the extraction of relational information in the target pattern.     

The Rotter locus of control scale: The comparison of alternative response formats and implications for reliability, validity, and dimensionality

Participants completed the Rotter internal/external (IE) instrument using three different response formats before and after completion of the Outward Bound program, and were evaluated by external observers at the end of the intervention. Multitrait-multimethod analyses indicated that five specific IE facets identified in previous research were consistently distinguished with each of the response formats. While responses were substantially more internal after the intervention, effect sizes varied with the IE facet and with the response format. Observer responses were significantly correlated with self-responses, and provided additional support for the construct validity of responses to the Rotter instrument and the interpretation of the intervention effect. Nevertheless, problems with the Rotter instrument were identified, and the implications for further research were discussed.     

Memory storage and retrieval processes in category learning

The detailed course of learning is studied for categorization tasks defined by independent or contingent probability distributions over the features of category exemplars. College-age subjects viewed sequences of bar charts that simulated symptom patterns and responded to each chart with a recognition and a categorization judgment. Fuzzy, probabilistically defined categories were learned relatively rapidly when individual features were correlated with category assignment, more slowly when only patterns carried category information. Limits of performance were suboptimal, evidently because of capacity limitations on judgmental processes as well as limitations on memory. Categorization proved systematically related to feature and exemplar probabilities, under different circumstances, and to similarity among exemplars of categories. Unique retrieval cues for exemplar patterns facilitated recognition but entered into categorization only at retention intervals within the range of short-term memory. The findings are interpreted within the framework of a general array model that yields both exemplar-similarity and feature-frequency models as special cases and provides quantitative accounts of the course of learning in each of the categorization tasks studied.     

Visual control of step length during running over irregular terrain

Running over uneven ground requires visually regulating step length to secure proper footing. To examine how this is achieved, we studied subjects running on a treadmill on a series of irregularly spaced targets. The movements of their lower limbs and coccyx relative to the targets were monitored opto-electronically by a Selspot system. The results indicated that step length was adjusted to strike the targets primarily by varying the vertical component of impulse applied to the ground during the stance phase. In contrast, horizontal impulse was not varied significantly, and changing the reach forward of the foot on landing contributed little to variation in step length. Changing the vertical impulse simply altered the step time proportionately. Thus the data are consistent with a time-based model in which vertical impulse is modulated by the optic variable delta tau (Lee, 1976) specifying the time gap that has to be bridged by the runner between two targets.     

Perceptual interactions in two-word displays: familiarity and similarity effects

Previous studies have demonstrated the existence of perceptual interactions in the processing of two-word displays such as SAND LANE. When postcued to report one of the two words, subjects often make migration errors, in that the report of the specified word includes a letter of the other word (e.g., LAND or SANE instead of SAND). We find that migrations depend on the abstract, structural similarity of the strings, but not on the physical similarity; on whether the strings are words; and on whether the possible migration responses are words. We also rule out an interpretation of migration errors that attributes them to a guessing strategy. Our findings are interpreted in terms of models in which both strings simultaneously access high-level structural knowledge, that is, knowledge about what sequences of letters fit together to form familiar wholes.     

Fluctuations and phase symmetry in coordinated rhythmic movements

Pendular, clocking movements typify mammalian terrestrial locomotion. They can be investigated with a procedure in which people swing hand-held pendulums at the wrists, comfortably and rhythmically. Pendular, clocking behavior was examined for in-phase and out-of-phase coordinations. The periodic timing and powering of rhythmic movements in the comfort state follow from different laws (Kugler & Turvey, 1986). One law guides the assembling of the reference frame for "clocking." Another law guides the assembling of the muscular, escapement processes determining the cycle energy. Wing and Kristofferson's (1973) method for parsing periodic-timing variance into independent "clock" and "motor" sources was applied. Mean periodicity was unaffected by phase. "Clock" fluctuations, however, were larger out of phase than in phase. "Motor" fluctuations were indifferent to phase but reflected the departures of individual wrist-pendulum systems from their preferred periods. It appears that an intended phase relation is realized as a constraint on "clock" states. These states are more stable under the in-phase constraint than under the out-of-phase constraint.     

Multidimensional scaling reveals two dimensions of thermal pain

The Individual Differences Scaling (INDSCAL) model of multidimensional scaling was used to explore the dimensions of thermal pain. The observers made 66 similarity judgments to all pairs of 12 different thermal stimulus intensities ranging from zero to noxious. Analysis of the data revealed a two-dimensional group stimulus space. The major dimension ordered the stimuli with respect to their intensity. This quantitative, strength-of-sensation dimension may be interpreted as indicating how weak or strong a stimulus feels, apart from any secondary qualities of warmth or pain. The second dimension was related to the qualitative aspects of the stimuli. This bipolar dimension contained two attributes: a pain attribute ranging from just detectable warmth to painful, and a warm-hot attribute running from just detectable warmth to hot. This study demonstrates the utility of the INDSCAL approach to the understanding of pain and offers a new technique for answering the age-old question concerning the number and qualities of the dimensions underlying the pain experience.     

The Zeigarnik effect and intrinsic motivation: Are they the same?

The present study focused on delineating the parameters under which intrinsic motivation leads an individual to reengage an activity from those that result in the Zeigarnik effect. In a posttask free-choice period, participants not completing the experimental task displayed more reengagement behavior than participants completing the task (the Zeigarnik effect). When participants were also provided self-efficacious performance feedback via a prearranged competitive outcome manipulation, there was no evidence of the Zeigarnik effect, while there was support for intrinsic motivation from competent self-efficacious performance feedback. Results were discussed in terms of distinguishing between intrinsic motivation and the Zeigarnik effect as sources of reengagement motivation. It was concluded that, in the presence of self-efficacious performance feedback, the competent-incompetent impression was more salient than task-completion feedback.Preparation of this article was supported by Texas Christian University grant TCU/RF 5-23757.     

Weanlings' transfer of conditioned ethanol aversion from olfaction to ingestion depends on the unconditioned stimulus

Weanling (21-day-old) rats were exposed to an alcohol odor paired with either an interoceptive (apomorphine-induced illness) or exteroceptive (footshock-induced distress) reinforcer. Twenty-four hours later, ethanol preferences were measured in a locational olfactory test (ethanol vs lemon odor) or an ingestion test (5.6% v/v ethanol vs 0.25% v/v citric acid solution). Weanling rats expressed substantial olfactory aversions, independent of the reinforcer employed in conditioning. During the drinking test, however, only rats that had experienced the ethanol odor paired with internal malaise showed a significant reduction in the intake of the ethanol solution when compared to unpaired controls. Furthermore, rats that had experienced the ethanol odor paired with external distress drank significantly more of the ethanol solution than their controls. These results provide further evidence that olfactory experiences with ethanol can lead to changes in ethanol ingestion, and indicate that the nature of the unconditioned stimulus is critical in establishing the ingestive effect.