Factor structure of the Lorr and More assertiveness inventory

Previous research among university students has identified four classes of assertive behavior, namely, Directiveness, Social Assertiveness, Defense of One's Rights and Interests and Independence. Scores on the Lorr and More (1980) Assertiveness Inventory, obtained from a general population sample, were subjected to Varimax rotatio. Results revealed only three classes of assertiveness. It is argued that Directiveness may be inferred from various forms of assertiveness, rather than being a separate and distinct class of assertive behavior.     

Hair loss,personality and attitudes

Personality and attitude measurements were carried out on 204 adult males suffering from hair loss. Three groups were tested: those in the first group had had a hair weave fitted and were retaining the weave as a viable solution to their hair problem; the second had worn the weave for a trial period but had decided against its continued use; the third had had no form of treatment and seemed little concerned about their hair loss. Results showed that all three groups possessed N and P scores which were significantly higher than those shown by a normative group of males in the same age range, but that the weave-retaining group scored significantly lower on E than the normative group: other personality differences were non-significant. The group who had rejected the hair-weave treatment as a viable solution to their hair-loss problem was significantly more neurotic and possessed a significantly lower self-esteem than the group that retained the weave: this latter group had scores on these and all other variables tested which were very similar to those of the group that had had no treatment.     

Interrogative suggestibility and delinquent boys: An empirical validation study

This study has several aims. First, to validate the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS) among delinquent and adolescent boys placed in an assessment and short-term treatment centre. Second, to test the hypothesis that adolescent boys are particularly susceptible to suggestions when they are ‘pressured’ by negative feedback and instructions. Finally, to investigate the hypothesis that suggestibility is related to memory recall and self-esteem. The GSS was administered to 31 boys (ages 11 to 16 yr) who had been independently rated by two teachers on measures of suggestibility and self-esteem. Suggestibility as measured by the GSS was found to correlate significantly with the teachers' ratings of suggestibility, supporting empirically the criterion-related validity of the GSS. Compared with young ‘normal’ adults the boys were no more likely to give in to suggestive questions than the adults, unless their performance was subjected to criticism and negative feedback. The results suggest that deliquent adolescents may be particularly responsive to interpersonal pressure during interrogation. The findings have important implications for police interrogation procedures.     

When celebrities talk,children listen: An experimental analysis of children's responses to TV ads with celebrity endorsement

Two studies tested the effects of TV ads with celebrity endorsement on the product preference and understanding of 8- to 14-year-old boys. Study 1 compared two ads for a model racer. One had celebrity endorsement (by a famous race driver) and footage of real automobile racing featuring the celebrity (live action); the second had neither feature. Study 2 employed one ad for a different brand of model racer edited to generate a 2 (endorser presence) by 2 (inclusion of live racetrack action) factorial design. A total of 415 boys were exposed to one of the experimental ads or a control ad, embedded in a new animated children's adventure program. Preference for the advertised brand of model racer (pre- and postviewing) and a number of cognitive variables were assessed. Exposure to endorsement led to increased preference for the toy and belief that the celebrity was expert about the toy. Live action led to exaggerated estimates of the physical properties of the toy and the belief that the ad was not staged. The 8- to 10-year-olds associated the glamour of the endorser with the toy and were more reliant on his advice than were 11- to 14-year-olds. However, the two age groups were not differentially affected by the ads. Contrary to the speculation of many researchers, understanding about advertising intent and techniques and cynicism about ads had almost no influence on product preference after viewing.     

Intelligence and age as predictors of motor performance

The Yule-Oseretsky test of motor performance was administered to 10 ‘undifferentiated’ mentally-retarded adults, 10 normal children and 10 normal adults. In accordance with Denny's (1964) 3-group design, the children were matched on mental age with the retardates, the normal adults were matched on chronological age with the retardates, and the children and normal adults were matched on intelligence quotient. The results showed that mental age predicted performance on both fine and gross motor tasks, with the children and retarded adults both obtaining similar relatively-low scores.     

The effects of empathic instructions upon donating behavior: Sex differences in young children

First-grade children were given either empathy instructions (in which they were told to imagine themselves in the target person's place) or neutral instructions (in which they were told to listen to what the target person did). For half the subjects, the target person was of the same sex; for the other half, the target person was of the opposite sex. Subjects were then given a chance to anonymously donate money to the target child, who was presented as being in need. Liking for the target child, subject's perceptions of the target child's emotional state, and subjects' report of their own emotional states were also assessed. Empathic instructions increased donating behavior for males, but not for females. Accuracy of perception of the target person's state was generally high. Self-reports of emotional states congruent with that of the target tended to be associated with increased donating behavior only for males, but these self-reports were greater for females than males, and greater for both sexes with same-sex target persons. Liking also was enhanced by gender similarity. These results are discussed in terms of a proposed relationship among empathy, prosocial behavior, sex, and age.We wish to express our gratitude to the staff and students of Wannamaker and North Fairview Elementary Schools of Topeka, Kansas, for their assistance in carrying out this research, and also thank C. Daniel Batson for his helpful suggestions and comments.     

The micro-structure of tapping movements in children

In order to investigate the development of movement speed in relation to movement organization, children of 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 years of age and adults carried out a reciprocal tapping task, in which time pressure and distance were manipulated. The duration, velocity, acceleration and accuracy of the movements were compared between age groups. Age differences appeared mainly in the homing time, not in the duration of the distance covering movement phase. Accuracy and velocity of the distance covering movement phase differed with age. Time pressure affected the homing time, but not the duration of the distance covering phase. Distance manipulation affected mainly the velocity and duration of the distance covering movement phase and the homing time. In the discussion it is contended that age differences in homing time may be related to both the accuracy of the distance covering movement phase and the rate of information processing of the subject.     

On the measurement of storage and retrieval contributions to memory development

We report two free recall experiments and a cued recall experiment in which a new two-stage model was used to obtain numerical measurements of age changes in various aspects of storage and retrieval. The subjects in all three experiments were 7-year-olds (second graders) and 11-year-olds (sixth graders). The major findings in the free recall experiment were that getting a trace into storage posed less of a problem for elementary schoolers than learning how to get it out on test trials, that retrieval development is more rapid during the elementary school years than storage development, and that the superiority of older children's storage and retrieval abilities tends to become more pronounced as learning progresses. A similar pattern of results was obtained under different conditions in the cued recall experiment.     

The effects of recency and story content on children's moral judgments

Sixteen stories were read to children at ages 4, 7, and 11 years and to college freshmen (n = 24 per age level) to investigate the effects of recency and specific story content on the development of moral reasoning. The stories consisted of either positive or negative intention and either positive or negative consequence in one of four situations: rule breaking, property damage, property damage with peer interaction, or injury to a person. At each age level, half of the subjects heard the stories with the intention first and the consequence second, and half heard them in the reverse order. Analyses confirmed that in general younger children judged on consequence, whereas older children utilized intention, and that on stories containing intentional injury to a person, the younger child took intention into account. Recency effects were evidenced for both the 4- and 7-year-olds. In the 4-year-old group, however, the recency effects failed to override the salience of negative consequence in contexts of positive intention and negative consequence. This suggests that preschool children may respond primarily to the negative aspect of the story, whether intention or consequence.