Frog skin,time series,and other kinds of data: Nonisomorphic representation and analysis

Representational art is spatially congruent, or isomorphic, with objects in the world. In other words, they are the same in some important way. But not all representation is isomorphic. Data graphs are a type of nonisomorphic representation. A major goal of data graphs is to facilitate the rapid comprehension of differences or relations. This is done by providing a kind of analogy between something that can be “seen” (the relative heights of points) and some relevant information. This article discusses some rules about data graphing, then some new visualization tools are briefly critiqued.     

Subject-pool record keeping: A database application

This paper describes a record-keeping system we developed for our subject pool, utilizing ORACLE database software on a VAX computer. This system consists of three data tables and four processes: set up, updating, report generation, and editing. This article describes the rationale and function of each of these four processes in detail. All input and output is in ASCII format. The combination of ASCII files and the ORACLE database system produces a subject-pool recordkeeping system that is adaptable, expandable, and exportable.     

Reading skill and the use of orthographic knowledge by Mature Readers

Summary Butler and Hains (1979) found individual differences in the effect of word length on RT in word naming and lexical-decision tasks; subjects scoring high on a vocabulary test were much less affected by word length than subjects with low scores. The present study attempted to determine whether such differences could be due to differences in the use of intraword structure, since word recognition has been linked, both empirically (Mason, 1978; Scheerer-Neumann, 1981) and theoretically (Mewhort & Campbell, 1981) to the use of orthographic redundancy. In Experiment 1, subjects were shown tachistoscopically presented letter strings varying in approximation to English. High vocabulary subjects were more capable of capitalizing on the redundancy with the higher-order approximations. Experiment 2 then established that performance on the vocabulary test was correlated with reading skill, measured by the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, and that skilled readers were more sensitive to the syllable structure in words. In the experiment, subjects were shown eight-letter words presented as three separate word units which either matched or violated syllable boundaries in the word. Skilled readers were more sensitive to the difference between syllable and nonsyllable units than were less skilled readers. The results obtained by Butler and Hains appear to reflect differences in reading skill and the efficiency of letter sequence parsing prior to word recognition.     

Perceived punishment and reward values of supervisor actions

The study investigated employee perceptions about the reward or punishment values inherent in a variety of supervisor actions. Actions viewed as most rewarding were generally actions that possessed (a) public visibility, (b) tangibility, (c) implied esteem, and (d) long-term implications. Actions viewed as punishing or aversive involved similar characteristics. Visibility appeared to be most strongly related to perceived severity. In contrast with suggestions in the literature (cf. León, 1981), substantial levels of agreement among raters were found for aversive as well as rewarding actions. Also reviewed are characteristics of leader actions that received mixed ratings from respondents.     

Analog SKED

Analog data can now be handled by SKED. Through the use of F3s, input, output, decisions, and analyses can be performed on analog data. A new command has been added to SKED. The trade off between number of boxes and resolution is discussed.     

Spatiotopic and retinotopic components of iconic memory

Summary Recently, there has been considerable interest in whether information in iconic memory is stored in retinotopic or spatiotopic coordinates. The present experiment examined the issue using a masking paradigm. In one set of conditions, subjects maintained fixation while a row of four letters appeared for 19 ms, centered about three degrees to the right of fixation. After a 153 ms ISI, the letters were followed by a blank field (no mask), a mask in the same position as the letters, or a mask displaced three degrees to the right of the letters. In a second set of conditions, the stimuli were the same but subjects were asked to shift fixation from the fixation point to the middle of the letter row during the interval between the letters and the mask. Subjects' eye movements were monitored in all conditions. Accuracy of report for the letters was lowered only with the mask over the letters with the no-eye-movement conditions and in both masking conditions with the eye movements. The results suggest that the icon includes two components, one that is retinotopic and one that is spatiotopic.     

Spectral cues provided by the pinna for monaural localization in the horizontal plane

Six subjects located, monaurally, 1.0-kHz-wide noise bursts whose source originated on the side of the functioning ear and whose center frequency ranged from 4.0 through 9.0 kHz (Part 1). Irrespective of their actual locations, the stimuli appeared to migrate from the frontal sector of the arc toward the side as the center frequency was increased above 4.0 kHz. For some subjects, the sounds appeared again in front at the higher center frequencies. Comparable data were obtained with noise bursts 2.0 kHz in width. We referred to these constellations of location judgments, influenced by the frequency composition of the stimuli, as spatial referent maps. In Part 2, we measured, by means of a miniature microphone placed at the entrance of the external ear canal, the pinna amplification function for these same stimuli emanating from the same locations. The results showed a positive relation between the apparent location of noise bursts centered at 6.0 kHz and above and the relative amplification provided by the pinna. Localization performances by two subjects, chosen on the basis of their noncorresponding spatial referent maps, were examined for stimuli of wider bandwidths IPart 3). Their proficiency differed markedly from one another, which we accounted for in terms of different spatial referent maps that were associated with differences in the pinna amplification function.     

Monaural localization following exposure to different segments of acoustic space

Four groups of eight monaural listeners received practice on locating sounds coming from different segments of the horizontal plane prior to a test in which all sounds originated within the same region. An additional eight monaural listeners were given the final localization test without the pretest practice. Knowledge of results was withheld. The main finding was that positive transfer of training was not equally apparent for all groups. That group for which the pretest and test involved the same ear and the same azimuthal positions of loudspeakers performed best. Practice in locating rearwardly positioned sounds did not benefit the localization of frontally positioned sounds even when the same ear was functioning in both situations. Experience in locating sounds from all segments of the horizontal plane appears to be required in order to build up an adequate internal representation of the acoustic surrounds.     

Influences of cognitive complexity on the dimensions underlying perceptions of the work environment

The literature on cognitive processes suggests that individuals differ in the dimensions they use to describe the work environment and thus the behavioral implications they attach to characteristics of that environment. Using the technique described by Bem and Allen (1974), navy enlisted personnel were separated into subgroups with high, medium, and low cognitive complexity scores. Responses about perceived characteristics of the work environment produced six components for the high complexity group versus four for the low group. Questions about supervisor behaviors, role characteristics, and work group interactions yielded similar dimensions for all groups, although differences were found for responses about macroorganizational characteristics. Significant but low relationships were found between complexity scores and global indices of job performance.This article is Report Number 79-2, supported by Naval Medical Research and Development Command, Department of the Navy, under Research Work Unit MF58.524.022-0011. The views presented are those of the authors. No endorsement by the Department of the Navy has been given or should be inferred.