General estimators for the reliability of qualitative data

We study a proportional reduction in loss (PRL) measure for the reliability of categorical data and consider the general case in which each ofN judges assigns a subject to one ofK categories. This measure has been shown to be equivalent to a measure proposed by Perreault and Leigh for a special case when there are two equally competent judges, and the correct category has a uniform prior distribution. We consider a general framework where the correct category is assumed to have an arbitrary prior distribution, and where classification probabilities vary by correct category, judge, and category of classification. In this setting, we consider PRL reliability measures based on two estimators of the correct category—the empirical Bayes estimator and an estimator based on the judges' consensus choice. We also discuss four important special cases of the general model and study several types of lower bounds for PRL reliability.Bruce Cooil is Associate Professor of Statistics, and Roland T. Rust is Professor and area head for Marketing, Owen Graduate School of Management, Vanderbilt University. The authors thank three anonymous reviewers and an Associate Editor for their helpful comments and suggestions. This work was supported in part by the Dean's Fund for Faculty Research of the Owen Graduate School of Management, Vanderbilt University.     

Forensic evaluations in immigration cases: Evolving issues

To date little attention has been paid to forensic mental health assessments in immigration cases. This article briefly reviews the law relevant to assessments in these cases, and then examines some of the individual, family, community and cultural issues that impact upon forensic evaluations in immigration cases.     

Multidimensional scaling of form: A psychophysical analysis

Both metric and nonmetric multidimensional scaling methods were used to analyze similarity estimates when random polygons were used as stimulus patterns. Three dimensions, dispersion, jaggedness, and elongation were obtained with both analyses and were related to physical measures of the patterns.     

Judgment stability and pseudorecognition of random and patterned configurations

Thirty six simple patterns were judged as “random” or “patterned” by adult Ss. Category judgments were consistent whether Ss were told that 1/4, 1/2, or 3/4 of the patterns were random or if no proportion was specified. In a second experiment, Ss viewed a series of slides previously judged patterned followed by a recognition series with two additional patterned slides inserted in a series of otherwise random slides. Although slides were never labeled random or patterned, Ss made the most false recognitions for the two patterned slides. In another condition where random and patterned slides were reversed, most false recognitions were made for the two random slides. Both Gamer’s notion of hypothetical set size and an analysis of balanced elements fit the results, but the adequacy of both hypotheses can be questioned when applied to previous results with more complex patterns.     

Adaptive rating scales in sequential decisions

The benefits gained in decision research through the use of computer-controlled procedures, as opposed to the use of traditional pencil-and-paper techniques, can exceed the expected gains of efficiency and standardization. Computers extend the scope of a sequential decision making paradigm by enhancing (1) the strength of experimental design, (2) reliability of measurement, (3) procedural flexibility, and (4) single-subject data analysis. Data are reported that indicate the necessity of using computers to obtain reliable measurements and valid results for this type of decision research.     

Using a token economy in a community-based residential program for disabled adults: An empirical evaluation leads to program modification

The effects of an existing token reinforcement program upon the acquisition and maintenance of independent living skills of 12 disabled adults in two halfway houses were investigated. Tokens (points) were used to purchase advancement up a step/level system, pay daily “rent,” and purchase curfew extensions. Tokens were effective in maintaining independent living skill behaviors. However, hearing clients showed a decrease in independent living skill behaviors over the course of the program, while hearing impaired clients showed no change. This paradoxical finding appeared to be the result of inadvertant program contingencies that allowed a decrease in desired behaviors as subjects advanced to higher steps. The authors discuss how the program would be modified to increase behaviors associated with independent living skills.     

Gender,instrumentality, and expressivity: Moderators of the relation between stress and psychological symptoms during adolescence

Examined the roles of gender, instrumentality, and expressivity as moderator of the relations between stressful events and psychological symptoms in samples of junior high (n = 93), senior high (n = 140), and college students (n = 145). Female adolescents in all three samples reported more overall negative events than did males. Females in the junior and senior high samples reported more negative interpersonal stresses than did males. However, there were no indications in any of the samples of a stronger relation between negative events and psychological symptoms for adolescent females than males. Further, there was little evidence that instrumentality or expressivity moderated the relations between negative events and psychological symptoms. In each sample, certain stresses were most strongly related to psychological symptoms: family stresses in the junior high, peer stresses in the senior high, and academic stresses in the college sample. Implications of the findings for developmental changes in stress during adolescence are discussed.     

Adherence-health status relationships in childhood diabetes

Used 24-hr recall interviews to assess adherence in a sample of seventy-eight 6- to 19-year-olds with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus over a 3-month period. Thirteen adherence measures were quantified and grouped into six adherence factors (Injection, Exercise, Diet Type, Testing/Eating Frequency, Calories Consumed, and Concentrated Sweets). Prevailing glucose levels over a 2- to 3-month interval were indexed by glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (HA1c) and glycosylated serum protein (GSP) assays. Fasting triglycerides (TRIG) and total cholesterol (CHOL) assays were used to estimate lipid metabolism. Adolescents were generally less adherent than their young counterparts. Using hierarchical multiple-regression techniques, HA1c and GSP were not reliably predicted by most of the adherence factors; only Calories Consumed showed any predictive power. No significant regression equations emerged for CHOL. In contrast, TRIG was significantly associated with five of the six adherence factors; in all cases, adherence interacted with the patients' metabolic status (as defined by HA1c) at study entry, suggesting that adherence had different effects for youngsters in good versus poor diabetes control.     

Cluster analysis in community research: Epistemology and practice

Cluster analysis refers to a family of methods for identifying cases with distinctive characteristics in heterogeneous samples and combining them into homogeneous groups. This approach provides a great deal of information about the types of cases and the distributions of variables in a sample. This paper considers cluster analysis as a quantitative complement to the traditional linear statistics that often characterize community psychology research. Cluster analysis emphasizes diversity rather than central tendency. This makes it a valuable tool for a wide range of familiar problems in community research. A number of these applications are considered here, including the assessment of change over time, network composition, network density, person-setting relationships, and community diversity. A User's Guide section is included, which outlines the major decisions involved in a basic cluster analyses. Despite difficulties associated with the identification of optimal cluster solutions, carefully planned, theoretically informed application of cluster analysis has much to offer community researchers. Editor's note: Dr. Edward Seidman served as action editor for this article while serving as Associate Editor for Methodology.     

The Influence of Counselor Trainee Anger-Proneness and Anger Discomfort on Reactions to an Angry Client

In this study the authors explored the relationship between counselor trainee anger-proneness and anger discomfort and trainees' reactions to an angry client. A total of 38 of trainees viewed and gave their reactions to a videotape of an angry client-actress. There were two dependent variables in the study: discomfort with and anger toward the client. Trainee anger-proneness and anger discomfort scores were positively and significantly related to discomfort with and anger toward the client. Implications for future research and training are discussed.