Self-focused attention, self-esteem, and the experience of state depression

The present experiment explored the effect of self-focused attention and self-esteem on self-reported state depression. Subjects completed a self-esteem scale before taking part in an exercise designed to induce either strong feelings of temporary depression (strong condition) or very mild feelings of temporary depression (weak condition). Before rating their mood, subjects waited for a short period either in the presence or absence of a mirror. A significant Depression Manipulation X Mirror-No Mirror interaction effect emerged: Subjects who waited in the presence of the mirror reported feeling more depressed in the strong condition and less depressed in the weak condition, relative to those who waited in the absence of the mirror. Moreover, this interaction effect was mainly attributable to the low self-esteem participants, rather than to the medium or high self-esteem individuals. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Procedural Fairness, Managers' Self-Esteem, and Managerial Behaviors Following a Layoff

The present research examined the predictors and consequences associated with managers' reactions to job layoffs. Whereas previous research suggests that procedural unfairness lowers self-esteem, we hypothesized that, in a downsizing context, the relationship between procedural unfairness and lower self-esteem would be more pronounced among managers than nonmanagers. The results of Study 1 supported the hypothesis and showed that the findings were attributable to managers' greater organizational commitment. Study 2 showed that managers who perceived procedures to be less fair were less likely to report practicing the behaviors needed from effective managers in times of change. Moreover, the relationship between procedural unfairness and managers' behaviors was mediated by their self-esteem. Subordinates of managers who engaged in less effective managerial behaviors, in turn, had more negative perceptions of their immediate work environments. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.     

Procedural fairness, outcome favorability, and judgments of an authority's responsibility

Fairness theory (R. Folger & R. Cropanzano, 1998, 2001) postulates that, particularly in the face of unfavorable outcomes, employees judge an organizational authority to be more responsible for their outcomes when the authority exhibits lower procedural fairness. Three studies lent empirical support to this notion. Furthermore, 2 of the studies showed that attributions of responsibility to the authority mediated the relationship between the authority's procedural fairness and employees' reactions to unfavorable outcomes. The findings (a) provide support for a key assumption of fairness theory, (b) help to account for the pervasive interactive effect of procedural fairness and outcome favorability on employees' attitudes and behaviors, and (c) contribute to an emerging trend in justice research concerned with how people use procedural fairness information to make attributions of responsibility for their outcomes. Practical implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research also are discussed.     

Spaced Out in Cyberspace? Evaluations of Computer‐Based Information1

This study draws on cognitive elaboration theory to examine when and why people evaluate computer‐based information more favorably than information from a less automated source. Half of participants received information from a computer, while half received the identical information from a less automated source. Moreover, participants were induced to be more vs. less involved in the information‐acquisition process. As predicted, participants in the low‐involvement condition evaluated the information more favorably when it came from a computer than from a less automated source. This difference was eliminated in the high‐involvement condition. Further supporting our reasoning, the interaction effect between information source and level of involvement was more pronounced for participants low, rather than high, in need for cognition.     

The role of listening in interpersonal influence

Using informant reports on working professionals, we explored the role of listening in interpersonal influence and how listening may account for at least some of the relationship between personality and influence. The results extended prior work which has suggested that listening is positively related to influence for informational and relational reasons. As predicted, we found that: (1) listening had a positive effect on influence beyond the impact of verbal expression, (2) listening interacted with verbal expression to predict influence (such that the relationship between listening and influence was stronger among those more expressive), and (3) listening partly mediated the positive relationships between each of the Big Five dimensions of agreeableness and openness and influence.     

The moderating influence of procedural fairness on the relationship between work-life conflict and organizational commitment

To help employees better manage work-life conflict, organizations have introduced various initiatives, which have met with mixed results. The present studies examined the utility of a procedurally based approach to understanding employees' reactions to work-life conflict. The authors examined whether the fairness of procedures used by organizational authorities to plan and implement decisions moderates the (inverse) relationship between work-life conflict and employees' organizational commitment. Three studies using different methodologies showed support for the moderating role played by procedural fairness. That is, the tendency for greater work-life conflict to lead to lower commitment was significantly less pronounced when procedural fairness was high rather than low. Theoretical contributions to the work-life conflict and organizational justice literatures are discussed, as are practical implications.     

Self-esteem and likability: Separating fact from fantasy

Much research has demonstrated the “vicious cycle” of low self-esteem in nonsocial task performance settings. The present study explores the possibility that social situations may also provide opportunities for low (and high) selfesteem individuals to respond in ways that maintain their self-image. More specifically, it has been shown that low self-esteem individuals believe that others like them to a lesser extent than do high self-esteem persons; such beliefs are bound to perpetuate individuals' self-esteem levels. This study is designed to investigate whether the self-perceptions of either or both groups are consistent with reality (as measured by others' actual liking for them), or are merely reflective of the perceiver's attitude. Unacquainted, opposite sex dyads completed self-esteem and self-likability measures before engaging in a “getting acquainted” conversation. Participants then rated their liking for their partners and estimated their partners' liking for them. Relative to high self-esteem participants, low self-esteem subjects rated themselves as less likable prior to the conversation and estimated that their partners liked them to a lesser extent after the conversation. However, low self-esteem subjects were actually rated by their partners as equally likable as the high self-esteem participants. Alternative explanations, limitations, and implications are discussed.     

Factors affecting withdrawal from an escalating conflict: Quitting before it's too late

In an experimental study of “entrapping” conflicts —situations in which a decisionmaker may continue to expend resources in part to justify previous expenditures—subjects were given an initial stake of $4.00 and had the opportunity to win an additional $2.00 jackpot. Two independent variables (Process of Resource Allocation and Prior Limit-Setting) were combined in a 2 × 3 design. Once the subjects had started to invest, half of them had to make an “active” decision to continue. Unless they actively decided to continue, their investments automatically ceased and they were no longer eligible for the jackpot (Selfterminating condition). The other half only had to make a “passive” decision to continue. Unless they actively decided to dis continue, their investments for the jackpot automatically increased (Self-sustaining condition). In addition, before investments began, some subjects were asked to inform the experimenter of the nonbinding limit they had set on the amount they planned to invest (Public condition), some were asked to set a limit which they kept to themselves (Private condition), while a third group was not asked to set a limit (Control condition). Subjects invested significantly more money in the Self-sustaining condition. Also, investments were somewhat greater in the Control than the Public condition. Although the mean investments in the Public and Private conditions did not differ, those in the Public condition deviated significantly less from their earlier set limits, suggesting greater commitment to these limits. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Identifying international assignees at risk for premature departure: the interactive effect of outcome favorability and procedural fairness

Two studies examined factors that predict expatriate managers' tendencies to think seriously about departing prematurely from their international assignments. Previous research (conducted outside of the expatriate context) has shown that individuals' willingness to stay with or leave their positions is an interactive function of outcome favorability and procedural fairness. A conceptually analogous interaction effect was found in the present studies. Whereas expatriates more seriously thought of departing prematurely when they perceived the non-work-related outcomes of their overseas assignments to be less favorable, this tendency was much less pronounced when procedural fairness was relatively high. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed, as are limitations of the studies and suggestions for future research.