The aggression paradox: understanding links among aggression,sensation seeking,and the consideration of future consequences

Four studies involving 573 female and 272 male college students demonstrated that multiple forms and measures of aggression were associated with high levels of sensation seeking, impulsivity, and a focus on the immediate consequences of behavior. Multiple regression analyses and structural equation models supported a theoretical model based on the general aggression model (C.A. Anderson & B.J. Bushman. 2002), positing that hostile cognition and negative affect mediate the relationships between the aforementioned individual differences and aggression. Sensation seeking also predicted a desire to engage in physical and verbal aggression. The final study demonstrated that relative to those scoring low, individuals scoring high on the consideration of future consequences are only less aggressive when aggression is likely to carry future costs.     

The relations of effortful control and reactive control to children's externalizing problems: a longitudinal assessment

In this study, we examined the role of negative emotionality as a moderator of the relations of effortful control and overcontrol (versus undercontrol) with children's externalizing problem behaviors; we also examined the longitudinal relations among these variables. Teachers' and parents' reports of children's negative emotionality, effortful control, overcontrol and externalizing problem behaviors were obtained at T1 (N=199; M age=89.51 months) and again 2 (T2) and 4 years (T3) later. In addition, children's effortful control was assessed with an observed measure of persistence. In a T3 concurrent structural equation model, effortful control, but not overcontrol, was negatively related to children's T3 externalizing problem behaviors. In regression analyses, the negative relation between T3 effortful control and externalizing problem behaviors was strongest at high levels of T3 negative emotionality. In the best-fitting longitudinal structural equation model, both T1 effortful control and T1 overcontrol negatively predicted externalizing problems at T1, whereas T3 effortful control (but not T3 overcontrol) was significantly negatively related to T3 externalizing problem behaviors when controlling for T1 externalizing problem behaviors.     

The psychology of doing nothing: forms of decision avoidance result from reason and emotion

Several independent lines of research bear on the question of why individuals avoid decisions by postponing them, failing to act, or accepting the status quo. This review relates findings across several different disciplines and uncovers 4 decision avoidance effects that offer insight into this common but troubling behavior: choice deferral, status quo bias, omission bias, and inaction inertia. These findings are related by common antecedents and consequences in a rational-emotional model of the factors that predispose humans to do nothing. Prominent components of the model include cost-benefit calculations, anticipated regret, and selection difficulty. Other factors affecting decision avoidance through these key components, such as anticipatory negative emotions, decision strategies, counterfactual thinking, and preference uncertainty, are also discussed.     

The Newell Test for a theory of cognition

Newell (1980; 1990) proposed that cognitive theories be developed in an effort to satisfy multiple criteria and to avoid theoretical myopia. He provided two overlapping lists of 13 criteria that the human cognitive architecture would have to satisfy in order to be functional. We have distilled these into 12 criteria: flexible behavior, real-time performance, adaptive behavior, vast knowledge base, dynamic behavior, knowledge integration, natural language, learning, development, evolution, and brain realization. There would be greater theoretical progress if we evaluated theories by a broad set of criteria such as these and attended to the weaknesses such evaluations revealed. To illustrate how theories can be evaluated we apply these criteria to both classical connectionism (McClelland & Rumelhart 1986; Rumelhart & McClelland 1986b) and the ACT-R theory (Anderson & Lebiere 1998). The strengths of classical connectionism on this test derive from its intense effort in addressing empirical phenomena in such domains as language and cognitive development. Its weaknesses derive from its failure to acknowledge a symbolic level to thought. In contrast, ACT-R includes both symbolic and sub-symbolic components. The strengths of the ACT-R theory derive from its tight integration of the symbolic component with the sub-symbolic component. Its weaknesses largely derive from its failure, as yet, to adequately engage in intensive analyses of issues related to certain criteria on Newell's list.     

The effect of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) on recognition memory decision processes and discrimination in postmenopausal women

In this article, the theoretical distinction between recognition memory decision and discrimination processes is used to explore the effect of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in postmenopausal women. DHEA is an adrenal steroid that diminishes with aging. It has enhanced memory in laboratory animals. An 8-week placebo-controlled, double-blind experiment in which 30 women (ages 39–70) received a 50-mg/day oral dose of DHEA for 4 weeks demonstrated that DHEA made subjects more conservative (i.e., less likely to call test items “old”) in their recognition memory decisions and enhanced recognition memory discrimination for items presented briefly. The former result may reflect an empirical regularity (Hirshman, 1995) in whichrecent strong memory experiences make participants more conservative. The latter result may reflect the effect of DHEA on visual perception, with consequent effects on memory. These results suggest the methodological importance of focusing on decision processes when examining the effects of hormones on memory.     

Kinesthetic estimation of the main orientations from the upright and supine positions

This work investigated the accuracy of the perception of the main orientations (i.e., vertical and horizontal orientations) with the kinesthetic modality--a modality not previously used in this field of research. To further dissociate the influence of the postural and physical verticals, two body positions were explored (supine and upright). Twenty-two blindfolded participants were asked to set, as accurately as possible, a rod to both physical orientations while assuming one of the two body positions. The horizontal was perceived more accurately than the vertical orientation in the upright position but not in the supine position. Essentially, there were no differences in the supine position because the adjustments to the physical vertical were much more accurate than they were in the upright position. The lower accuracy in the estimation of the vertical orientation observed in the upright position might be linked to the dynamics associated with the maintenance of posture.     

Teaching teenagers with autism to seek assistance when lost

Three teenagers with autism were taught to respond to a vibrating pager to seek assistance in community settings when physically separated from their parents or teachers. A multiple baseline probe design across participants demonstrated that, upon being paged, participants successfully handed a communication card to a community member indicating that they were lost. Generalization was assessed in nontraining community sites and on outings with the participants' parents.     

Differences in motivations of paid versus nonpaid volunteers

143 AmeriCorps volunteers (30 men; 113 women) and 127 college student volunteers (43 men; 84 women) completed the Volunteer Functions Inventory to assess whether monetary compensation was associated with choice to volunteer to provide educational services, e.g., tutoring, mentoring. Based on Snyder's 1993 theory of functionalism, motives of paid (AmeriCorps participants) and nonpaid (college students) volunteers were expected to differ. It was also predicted that the motives of female and male volunteers would differ. Multivariate analysis of variance confirmed these assumptions. In general, paid male participants reported perceiving numerous benefits associated with volunteering and reported stronger beliefs about such benefits. Female participants reported motives for volunteering, in contrast, which were not linked with monetary compensation. The women reported recognizing the benefits of volunteering and engaging in this activity for egoistic reasons. Their reported motives had little relation to compensation.