SUPPORT FOR A NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL OF SPIRITUALITY IN PERSONS WITH TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Recent research suggests that spiritual experiences are related to increased physiological activity of the frontal and temporal lobes and decreased activity of the right parietal lobe. The current study determined if similar relationships exist between self‐reported spirituality and neuropsychological abilities associated with those cerebral structures for persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Participants included 26 adults with TBI referred for neuropsychological assessment. Measures included the Core Index of Spirituality (INSPIRIT); neuropsychological indices of cerebral structures: temporal lobes (Wechsler Memory Scale‐III), right parietal lobe (Judgment of Line Orientation), and frontal lobes (Trail Making Test, Controlled Oral Word Association Test). As hypothesized, spirituality was significantly negatively correlated with a measure of right parietal lobe functioning and positively correlated (nonsignificantly) with measures of left temporal lobe functioning. Contrary to hypotheses, correlations between spirituality and measures of frontal lobe functioning were zero or negative (and nonsignificant). The data support a neuropsychological model that proposes that spiritual experiences are related to decreased activity of the right parietal lobe, which may be associated with decreased awareness of the self (transcendence) and increased activity of the left temporal lobe, which may be associated with the experience of specific religious archetypes (religious figures and symbols).     

Interaction Effects of Neighborhood Disadvantage and Individual Social Support on Frequency of Alcohol Use in Youth Living with HIV

Youth living with HIV (YLH) experience multiple disease‐related stresses along with the same structural and developmental challenges faced by their uninfected peers; alcohol use among YLH represents a risk behavior by virtue of potential effects on youth health and increased likelihood of engaging in unprotected sex while drinking alcohol. Research aimed at better understanding the interplay of individual‐ and neighborhood‐level influences on alcohol use for YLH is needed to inform interventions. This study examined whether socioeconomic disadvantage (SED) and social support influence, independently and through interaction, alcohol use in YLH. Data from the Adolescent Medicine Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions (ATN) consisted of YLH across 538 neighborhoods in the United States who acquired HIV behaviorally. Neighborhood‐specific data were compiled from the 2010 U.S. Census Bureau and matched with individual‐level data from the ATN (N = 1,357) to examine effects that contribute to variation in frequency of alcohol use. Other drug use, being male, being non‐Black, and older age were associated with greater alcohol use. Higher social support was negatively associated with alcohol use frequency. A cross‐level interaction indicated that the association found between decreasing social support and increasing alcohol use frequency was weakened in areas with lower SED. Implications are discussed.     

Selflessness as a Foundation of Spiritual Transcendence: Perspectives From the Neurosciences and Religious Studies

Although of increasing scientific interest, the neurologic foundations of spiritual experiences remain ambiguous due to the neurological complexity of such experiences and the lack of a clear taxonomy of “spiritual experiences.” A previously proposed preliminary neuropsychological model of spirituality (Johnstone & Glass, 2008) suggests that decreased self-orientation (or increased selflessness), associated with reduced right hemisphere/right parietal lobe (RH/RPL) functioning, serves as a neuropsychological foundation of spiritual transcendence (defined as the ability to emotionally and cognitively connect with higher powers beyond the self or experience cosmic unity). This model was based on research that indicates that transcendent spiritual experiences are related to reduced activation of portions of the RH/RPL during religious rituals (e.g., Buddhist meditation, Christian prayer), as well as research that indicates that individuals with RH/RPL dysfunction report increased transcendence. This model has been supported by research with other populations (e.g., brain injury, epilepsy, tumor) and technologies (e.g., repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation), although limitations in the model persist. The current article addresses such weaknesses by demonstrating the existence of “spiritual transcendence” as a psychometrically valid construct, identifying specific self-orientation processes (e.g., physical self, mental self, autobiographical self) that may serve as a foundation for transcendence, and explaining how transcendent experiences can involve both a decreased and enhanced sense of the self. To further support the model, citations from the texts of multiple faith traditions are offered to illustrate the importance of selflessness in transcendent experiences across diverse religions. Suggestions for future research and practical implications are offered.     

Affect as a foundational psychological process for spirituality and empathy

There is growing interest in understanding the manner by which spiritual experiences, religious beliefs and behaviours, and prosocial traits (e.g., empathy, altruism) are related. Research has recently focused on determining those psychological constructs (e.g., affective, behavioural, cognitive) that are common to these related constructs, although the specific relationships remain unclear. The current study evaluated relationships among spiritual experiences and affective and cognitive dimensions of empathy in 98 participants with heterogeneous health conditions. Results indicate that spirituality is significantly related to affective empathy, but not cognitive empathy. These findings suggest that individuals’ propensity to be both spiritual and empathetic is primarily related to a greater disposition towards emotional connection with others (i.e., whether with the divine or other people). Research and practical implications are discussed.     

The relationship between the Wechsler Memory Scale—Revised (WMS-R) Attention index and putative measures of Attention

Although the Wechsler Memory Scale—Revised (WMS-R; Wechsler, 1987) is one of the more frequently used measures of memory and attention, its Attention/Concentration Index (ACI) has been minimally researched. If the ACI is to be used as a measure of attention, the need exists to determine if it is related to other measures theoretically argued to be sensitive to attention deficits. The present study evaluated the relationship between the WMS-R ACI and other putative measures of attention by comparing individuals labeled as Attention Impaired [ACI at least 15 points < General Memory Index (GMI)] versus those labeled as Memory Impaired (GMI at least 15 points < ACI). Contrary to expectations, the Attention Impaired group scored equal to the Memory Impaired group on all measures theorized to be sensitive to attention deficits (Trails A and B time, Trails B errors, Rey AVLT interference list), except for statistically weaker performance on Trails A errors. In contrast but as expected, the Memory Impaired group scored statistically worse on all memory tests (Rey AVLT, all TPT variables). The groups also did not differ on tests argued not to be differentially affected by either attention or memory (WAIS-R FIQ, Category Test). It is concluded that the WMS-R Attention Index is not related to deficits on other measures sensitive to attention, further emphasizing the need to identify more clearly specific attention constructs.     

Something in the way we move: Motion dynamics, not perceived sex, influence head movements in conversation

During conversation, women tend to nod their heads more frequently and more vigorously than men. An individual speaking with a woman tends to nod his or her head more than when speaking with a man. Is this due to social expectation or due to coupled motion dynamics between the speakers? We present a novel methodology that allows us to randomly assign apparent identity during free conversation in a video-conference, thereby dissociating apparent sex from motion dynamics. The method uses motion-tracked synthesized avatars that are accepted by naive participants as being live video. We find that 1) motion dynamics affect head movements but that apparent sex does not; 2) judgments of sex are driven almost entirely by appearance; and 3) ratings of masculinity and femininity rely on a combination of both appearance and dynamics. Together, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis of separate perceptual streams for appearance and biological motion. In addition, our results are consistent with a view that head movements in conversation form a low level perception and action system that can operate independently from top-down social expectations.     

Testing 40 Predictions From the Transtheoretical Model Again,With Confidence

Testing Theory-based Quantitative Predictions (TTQP) represents an alternative to traditional Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) procedures and is more appropriate for theory testing. The theory generates explicit effect size predictions and these effect size estimates, with related confidence intervals, are used to test the predictions. The focus of a study is shifted to a quantitative approach in contrast to the NHST dyadic decision centered on testing a prediction not based on the theory. This article describes the TTQP as an alternative approach by replicating and extending a test of 40 a priori predictions based on the Transtheoretical Model (TTM). Specific quantitative predictions were made about the magnitude of the effect size (ω²). The predictions involved movement from 1 of 3 initial stages (Precontemplation, Contemplation, and Preparation) to stage membership 12 months later. In the initial study, 36 of the 40 predictions were confirmed. The same 40 predictions are evaluated on a sample (N = 3,923) of smokers recruited from a large New England HMO for a smoking cessation study. The predictions were recalibrated based on the first study and 99% confidence intervals were employed to test the predictions. Thirty-two of the 40 predictions were confirmed. Of the 8 failures, 4 were judged to reflect a need for further recalibration, 1 was attributed to sampling fluctuation, and 3 suggested revisions of the theory are needed. The results provide overall support for the TTM. The study also illustrates some of the challenges of testing quantitative predictions.     

The clinical utility of the Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test in medical rehabilitation

Recent research has reported the Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test Trial V (RAVLT-V) score to be a sensitive indicator of global cognitive functioning, not merely verbal learning skills. The concurrent validity of the RAVLT-V relative to other neuropsychological measures frequently utilized in medical rehabilitation was investigated in a sample of 64 outpatients diagnosed with traumatic brain injury (TBI). The sample was predominantly male (77%), white (97%), youthful (31.4±11.5 years), high school educated, and an average of 53 months postinjury. Using stepwise multiple regression analysis, a three-variable model consisting of gender, Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised Delayed Memory Index, and Trailmaking Part B (time) accounted for 61% of the variance in RAVLT-V scores. These findings suggest that in TBI patients, the RAVLT taps not only specific verbal learning and memory, but also global cognitive functions. Sensitivity to diffuse neuropsychological changes and ease/speed of administration make the RAVLT a valuable tool in medical rehabilitation settings.