When Do Rewards Have Enhancement Effects? An Availability Valence Approach

It is commonly argued that although rewards induce behaviors, they undermine attitudes and motivation for subsequent action. This perspective has been applied in a consumer setting to suggest that sales promotions such as coupons will undermine consumer brand evaluations and brand loyalty. Instead of focusing on the undermining effects of promotional rewards, this research applies the availability valence hypothesis (Tybout, Sternthal, & Calder, 1983) to predict and explain when rewards will enhance recipient response. Two experiments demonstrate that an immediate reward from a product‐related source enhances product evaluations by making favorable information more accessible than unfavorable information. Promotions enhance the relative accessibility of favorable information when their benefits are directly experienced and the salience of the promotion's task‐contingency is diminished by maximizing consumer behavioral freedom.     

Blockade of GABAA Receptors in the Interpositus Nucleus Modulates Expression of Conditioned Excitation but not Conditioned Inhibition of the Eyeblink Response

The cerebellum and related brainstem structures are essential for excitatory eyeblink conditioning. Recent evidence indicates that the cerebellar interpositus and lateral pontine nuclei may also play critical roles in conditioned inhibition (CI) of the eyeblink response. The current study examined the role of GABAergic inhibition of the interpositus nucleus in retention of CI. Male Long-Evans rats were implanted with a cannula positioned just above or in the anterior interpositus nucleus before training. The rats were trained with two different tones and a light as conditioned stimuli, and a periorbital shock as the unconditioned stimulus. CI training consisted of four phases: 1) excitatory conditioning (8 kHz tone paired with shock); 2) feature-negative discrimination (2 kHz tone paired with shock or 2 kHz tone concurrent with light); 3) summation test (8 kHz tone or 8 kHz tone concurrent with light); and 4) retardation test (light paired with shock). After reaching a criterion level of performance on the feature-negative discrimination (40% discrimination), 0.5 microl picrotoxin (a GABAA receptor antagonist) was infused at one of four concentrations, each concentration infused during separate test sessions. Picrotoxin transiently impaired conditioned responses during trials with the excitatory stimulus (tone) in a dose-dependent manner, but did not significantly impact responding to the inhibitory compound stimulus (tone-light). The results suggest that expression of conditioned inhibition of the eyeblink conditioned response does not require GABAergic inhibition of neurons in the anterior interpositus nucleus.     

Habituation in high‐risk infants: reliability and patterns of responding

We examined both the reliability of infant‐controlled habituation and patterns of responding in a group of high‐risk infants (mean age 16 mos). Good test–retest reliability was found for mean, total, and baseline looking time for one of the stimuli. Classification of infants' pattern of performance yielded two groups: linear (57%) and non‐linear (29%) responders; 14% of cases could not be classified because of cross‐session inconsistencies in performance. Linear responders had shorter total looking times, fewer trials to criterion, and showed more habituation than non‐linear responders, thus validating the linear/non‐linear distinction. Our findings indicate that the infant‐controlled habituation task can be used reliably with infants who are at high risk for developmental disorders. Indeed, we provide evidence that this task is not only reliable, but may also provide meaningful distinctions between infants within the high‐risk population. Discussion focuses on the role of attention in distinguishing between short (linear) and long (non‐linear) lookers. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rule Violations in Intercollegiate Athletics: A Qualitative Investigation Utilizing an Organizational Justice Framework

Cheating and rule violations in intercollegiate athletics continue to be relevant issues in many institutions of higher education because they reflect upon the integrity of the institutions in which they are housed, causing concern among many faculty members, administrators, and trustees. Although a great deal of research has documented the numerous rule violations in NCAA intercollegiate athletics, much of it has failed to combine sound theory with practical solutions. The purpose of this study was to examine the possible extensions of the organizational justice framework to the problem of rule violations in intercollegiate athletics. In doing so, the current study examined (a) perceived areas of injustice among coaches at NCAA Division I institutions, (b) avenues by which coaches resolve these injustices, and (c) potential solutions for resolving injustices in an attempt to reduce NCAA violations. Six NCAA Division I basketball coaches from various parts of the country (four from men's teams and two from women's teams) were interviewed using a semi-structured format. Despite the NCAA's efforts to create parity, results showed that coaches perceived several areas of inequities in recruiting, including financial resources and academic standards. The interviewed coaches described several means that are currently used to resolve these inequities and offered recommendations for changes to reduce injustice in the future.     

Many Many Problems

Supervaluationist solutions to 'the problem of the many' typically rely on two principles. First, the root of the problem is that singular terms can be vague, just as predicates can be. Secondly, the same resolution as the supervaluationist suggests for puzzles with vague predicates will resolve puzzles concerning vague singular terms. In recent years this second principle has been attacked from a number of fronts: it has been claimed that supervaluationist accounts of vague singular terms cannot explain the role of vague singular terms in propositional attitude reports, cannot explain penumbral connections between distinct singular terms, and cannot allow that vague singular terms are directly referential. While some of these arguments are successful against extant supervaluationist theories, I offer some natural modifications to supervaluationism which avoid the challenges.     

Prävention chronischer Krankheiten und Gesundheitsförderung

Zusammenfassung In den vergangenen 50 Jahren konnten große Fortschritte in der Entwicklung und der Umsetzung des verhaltensmedizinischen Wissens über die Gesundheit von Individuen und Populationen erzielt werden. Allerdings kamen Gesundheitsförderung und Krankheitsprävention nicht allen Bevölkerungsschichten in und zwischen den einzelnen Ländern in gleichem Maße zugute. Die Ungleichheit der sozialen, psychischen und körperlichen Gesundheit zwischen den wohlhabendsten und ärmsten Bevölkerungsgruppen ist im Wesentlichen gleichgeblieben oder sogar gewachsen. Das Wissen darüber, wie solche Unterschiede in der Gesundheit entstehen, ist allerdings erst dann von Bedeutung, wenn es dazu verwendet wird, geeignete, langfristige und nachhaltige Präventionsstrategien auf mehreren Ebenen zu erarbeiten. Bei solchen Strategien spielen verschiedene Aspekte der globalen natürlichen ökologischen Umwelt und das Streben nach einer sog. gesundheitserhaltenden Umwelt eine wichtige Rolle. Mit dem wachsenden Einfluss der Globalisierung auf die Gesundheit stellt sich die Frage, welche Folgen jenseits der traditionellen nationalen Grenzen für die Krankheitsprävention und für die Gesundheitsförderung zu erwarten sind. Sie sollte uns anregen, darüber nachzudenken, dass die Verbreitung von wirksamen Interventionen auf institutioneller oder politischer Ebene nicht nur innerhalb eines Landes, sondern auch zwischen verschiedenen Ländern von höchster Wichtigkeit ist. In Anbetracht der global und schnell voranschreitenden ökonomischen und sozialen Veränderungen und des gewaltigen Einflusses von globalen Umweltveränderungen auf die Gesundheit müssen die Bandbreite und die Praxis der Verhaltensmedizin erweitert werden.Aus dem Englischen übersetzt von Dipl.-Psych. Erika Nemény, Berlin und Prof. Dr. Ulrike Ehlert, Zürich     

Pr?vention chronischer Krankheiten und Gesundheitsf?rderung Der Beitrag der Verhaltensmedizin

In den vergangenen 50 Jahren konnten große Fortschritte in der Entwicklung und der Umsetzung des verhaltensmedizinischen Wissens über die Gesundheit von Individuen und Populationen erzielt werden. Allerdings kamen Gesundheitsförderung und Krankheitsprävention nicht allen Bevölkerungsschichten in und zwischen den einzelnen Ländern in gleichem Maße zugute. Die Ungleichheit der sozialen, psychischen und körperlichen Gesundheit zwischen den wohlhabendsten und ärmsten Bevölkerungsgruppen ist im Wesentlichen gleichgeblieben oder sogar gewachsen. Das Wissen darüber, wie solche Unterschiede in der Gesundheit entstehen, ist allerdings erst dann von Bedeutung, wenn es dazu verwendet wird, geeignete, langfristige und nachhaltige Präventionsstrategien auf mehreren Ebenen zu erarbeiten. Bei solchen Strategien spielen verschiedene Aspekte der globalen natürlichen ökologischen Umwelt und das Streben nach einer sog. gesundheitserhaltenden Umwelt eine wichtige Rolle. Mit dem wachsenden Einfluss der Globalisierung auf die Gesundheit stellt sich die Frage, welche Folgen jenseits der traditionellen nationalen Grenzen für die Krankheitsprävention und für die Gesundheitsförderung zu erwarten sind. Sie sollte uns anregen, darüber nachzudenken, dass die Verbreitung von wirksamen Interventionen auf institutioneller oder politischer Ebene nicht nur innerhalb eines Landes, sondern auch zwischen verschiedenen Ländern von höchster Wichtigkeit ist. In Anbetracht der global und schnell voranschreitenden ökonomischen und sozialen Veränderungen und des gewaltigen Einflusses von globalen Umweltveränderungen auf die Gesundheit müssen die Bandbreite und die Praxis der Verhaltensmedizin erweitert werden.     

Expanding the traditional user versus non‐user dichotomy amongst ecstasy users

Differences in the drug use characteristics and psychosocial variables in the use and non‐use of ecstasy within 845 16–25 year‐olds in the UK was examined. Based on levels of ecstasy use and intentions, two groups of non‐users (resistant and vulnerable), three groups of users (light, moderate and heavy) and an ex‐user group were identified. It was found that there is predictive utility in this way of expanding the widely employed ‘user versus non‐user’ dichotomy. Resistant non‐users were more likely to be younger, female, and were characterized by lower levels of use of four other drugs (amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine and LSD). Those ‘at risk’ of using ecstasy reported more frequent use of amphetamine, LSD, and cannabis than resistant non‐users. Heavy user groups reported using amphetamine, cocaine and LSD more frequently than all the other groups. Having ecstasy using friends increased the odds of being an ‘at risk’ non‐user or an ecstasy user. Normative influence also differentiated between the three user groups (light, moderate, and heavy). Beliefs about ecstasy use being immoral, ecstasy offers being difficult to resist, ecstasy use making one feel guilty and ecstasy being readily available differentiated between user and non‐user groups. These factors could usefully inform the content of health education materials designed to change ecstasy use. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

how organizations should respond to rape in the workplace

Each year, approximately 51,000 incidents of rape and sexual assault occur in the workplace. If an incident of rape occurs in the workplace, management can adopt several procedures for both the assaulted victim and the organization. First, encourage coworkers to show support for the victim. Second, plan the employee's return to work. Third, provide career and other forms of counseling and assistance for the victim. Fourth, and most important, show concern for the employee. An organization can use a variety of administrative controls and environmental designs as preventive measures to help protect employees from being raped or sexually assaulted in the workplace.