Models of verbal working memory capacity: what does it take to make them work?

Theories of working memory (WM) capacity limits will be more useful when we know what aspects of performance are governed by the limits and what aspects are governed by other memory mechanisms. Whereas considerable progress has been made on models of WM capacity limits for visual arrays of separate objects, less progress has been made in understanding verbal materials, especially when words are mentally combined to form multiword units or chunks. Toward a more comprehensive theory of capacity limits, we examined models of forced-choice recognition of words within printed lists, using materials designed to produce multiword chunks in memory (e.g., leather brief case). Several simple models were tested against data from a variety of list lengths and potential chunk sizes, with test conditions that only imperfectly elicited the interword associations. According to the most successful model, participants retained about 3 chunks on average in a capacity-limited region of WM, with some chunks being only subsets of the presented associative information (e.g., leather brief case retained with leather as one chunk and brief case as another). The addition to the model of an activated long-term memory component unlimited in capacity was needed. A fixed-capacity limit appears critical to account for immediate verbal recognition and other forms of WM. We advance a model-based approach that allows capacity to be assessed despite other important processing contributions. Starting with a psychological-process model of WM capacity developed to understand visual arrays, we arrive at a more unified and complete model.     

Psychotherapy integration in the treatment of personality disorders: a commentary

Whereas research on the treatment of personality disorders over the past several decades has focused primarily on comparing the efficacy of various treatment packages associated with different theoretical models, there is increasing evidence that the field would benefit from focusing more attention on developing integrative treatments that are both informed by research and capable of scientific verification. The articles assembled for this special section each propose a different approach to integrative treatment for personality disorders. In this commentary, we outline a number of reasons for making such a shift to more integrative treatments, consider some of the potential challenges to integration, and discuss the different approaches to integration illustrated in these articles. We highlight some of the difficult tradeoffs that must be made in developing an integrative approach and discuss similarities and differences in the response to such challenges by the contributors to this special section. Finally, we point to several areas for future research that we believe will contribute to the development of increasingly effective treatments for individuals with personality disorders.     

Brief wakeful resting boosts new memories over the long term

A brief wakeful rest after new verbal learning enhances memory for several minutes. In the research reported here, we explored the possibility of extending this rest-induced memory enhancement over much longer periods. Participants were presented with two stories; one story was followed by a 10-min period of wakeful resting, and the other was followed by a 10-min period during which participants played a spot-the-difference game. In Experiment 1, wakeful resting led to significant enhancement of memory after a 15- to 30-min period and also after 7 days. In Experiment 2, this striking enhancement of memory 7 days after learning was demonstrated even when no retrievals were imposed in the interim. The degree to which people can remember prose after 7 days is significantly affected by the cognitive activity that they engage in shortly after new learning takes place. We propose that wakeful resting after new learning allows new memory traces to be consolidated better and hence to be retained for much longer.     

The Role of Mothers and Media on Emerging Adults’ Religious Faith and Practices by Way of Internalization of Prosocial Values

In the current study, we investigated the role of emerging adults?? internalization of prosocial values as a mediator between maternal relationship quality and two types of media use (positive and negative) and religious faith and practices. Participants included 500 undergraduate students (ranging from 18 to 26?years; 75% European American) from five American universities. Structural equation modeling results indicated that both maternal relationship quality and positive media were related positively and indirectly (by way of prosocial values) to religious faith, and maternal relationship quality was related positively and directly to religious faith. In contrast, negative media use was related negatively and directly (and indirectly by way of prosocial values) to religious faith. The discussion focuses on the role of parents and media in promoting religious faith and practices, and the extent to which emerging adults?? internalized prosocial values appear to be important in the socialization process of religious faith.     

Involving Parents in Indicated Early Intervention for Childhood PTSD Following Accidental Injury

Accidental injuries represent the most common type of traumatic event to which a youth is likely to be exposed. While the majority of youth who experience an accidental injury will recover spontaneously, a significant proportion will go on to develop Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). And yet, there is little published treatment outcome research in this area. This review focuses on two key issues within the child PTSD literature—namely the role of parents in treatment and the timing of intervention. The issue of parental involvement in the treatment of child PTSD is a question that is increasingly being recognized as important. In addition, the need to find a balance between providing early intervention to at risk youth while avoiding providing treatment to those youth who will recover spontaneously has yet to be addressed. This paper outlines the rationale for and the development of a trauma-focused CBT protocol with separate parent and child programs, for use with children and adolescents experiencing PTSD following an accidental injury. The protocol is embedded within an indicated intervention framework, allowing for the early identification of youth at risk within a medical setting. Two case studies are presented in order to illustrate key issues raised in the review, implementation of the interventions, and the challenges involved.     

The impacts of friendship groups’ racial composition when perceptions of prejudice threaten students’ academic self-concept

Literature on racially prejudiced stereotypes suggests that students?? academic self-concepts (ASC) can be damaged when a stereotype demeans the intelligence of their racial or ethnic group. There is little research on how students overcome this burden, but there is some evidence that the racial composition of friendship groups play a role. One argument suggests having racially diverse friends could help students see the inaccuracy of stereotypes and another points out that racially homogenous friends could collectively resist the stereotypes as a support group. In this study I analyze a nationally representative and racially diverse sample of United States adolescents to examine these hypotheses. After estimating multivariate regression models for four separate racial/ethnic groups (Asian, African-American, Hispanic, white), results show that although perceptions of prejudice do predict decreases in ASC for African-American students, racially homogenous friendship groups have the opposite effect which lends credibility to the support group hypothesis. In addition, racial diversity of friendship groups predicts decreased ASC for African-American students, suggesting diverse groups could make prejudice more salient. The implications for these findings include the reminder that prejudice is still a valid concern in American schools and that peers can be a significant source of racial tension and/or support. In terms of students?? ASC, it is important for educators to be aware of these social conditions and to continue to seek a better understanding of race relations in schools so that more students are not psychologically burdened by racial tension.     

When getting angry is smart: emotional preferences and emotional intelligence

People who prefer to feel useful emotions, even when they are unpleasant to experience, must understand emotions and seek to regulate them in strategic ways. Such people, therefore, may be more emotionally intelligent compared with people who prefer to feel emotions that may not be useful for the context at hand, even if those emotions are pleasant to experience. We tested this hypothesis by measuring emotional intelligence and preferences to feel pleasant and unpleasant emotions in contexts in which they are likely to be useful or not. We found significant positive associations between emotional intelligence and preferences for useful emotions, even when controlling for trait emotional experiences and cognitive intelligence. People who prefer to feel anger when confronting others tend to be higher in emotional intelligence, whereas people who prefer to feel happiness in such contexts tend to be lower in emotional intelligence. Such findings are consistent with the idea that wanting to feel bad may be good at times, and vice versa.     

Should people pursue feelings that feel good or feelings that do good? Emotional preferences and well-being

Is it adaptive to seek pleasant emotions and avoid unpleasant emotions all the time or seek pleasant and unpleasant emotions at the right time? Participants reported on their preferences for anger and happiness in general and in contexts in which they might be useful or not (i.e., confrontations and collaborations, respectively). People who generally wanted to feel more happiness and less anger experienced greater well-being. However, when emotional preferences were examined in context, people who wanted to feel more anger or more happiness when they were useful, and people who wanted to feel less of those emotions when they were not useful, experienced greater well-being. Such patterns could not be explained by differences in the perceived usefulness of emotions, intelligence, perceived regulatory skills, emotional acceptance, social desirability, or general emotional preferences. These findings demonstrate that people who want to feel unpleasant emotions when they are useful may be happier overall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Development and validation of the shy bladder scale

Paruresis, characterized by the difficulty or inability to urinate in a variety of social contexts, is a scientifically under-studied phenomenon. One reason for this state of affairs is the paucity of reliable and valid measures for assessing this problem. The present article attempted to address this limitation by investigating the psychometric properties and validity of a new measure of paruresis: the Shy Bladder Scale (SBS). In two undergraduate samples, the SBS demonstrated excellent internal consistency and a stable factor structure assessing difficulty urinating in public, impairment and distress, and paruresis-related fear of negative evaluation. Undergraduate students evidenced very low levels of paruresis-related concerns. In contrast, SBS scores were markedly elevated among individuals recruited from an online support network who appeared to meet diagnostic criteria for paruresis-specific social phobia. Our findings highlight the SBS's potential utility as a measure of paruresis in clinical and research contexts.     

Roles of domain knowledge and working memory capacity in components of skill in Texas Hold’Em poker

Domain knowledge is a powerful predictor of success in many complex tasks, but do general cognitive abilities also play a role? To investigate this question, we had 155 participants representing a wide range of poker experience and skill complete tests of poker knowledge, working memory capacity (WMC), and two components of skill in Texas Hold’Em poker: the ability to remember hands and the ability to evaluate hands. Not surprisingly, poker knowledge positively predicted performance in all of the Hold’Em tasks. However, WMC added significantly to the prediction, and there was no evidence for interactions between poker knowledge and WMC. That is, WMC was as important as a predictor of performance at high levels of poker knowledge as at low levels, suggesting that domain knowledge may not always enable circumvention of WMC in domain-relevant tasks.