The best of two worlds—observations with norms

This paper reiterates the utility of both standardized tests and direct observations of behavior, despite the problems related to each of these assessment procedures. An additional assessment technique is recommended which combines the “best of both worlds”; this technique is the collection of normative data by means of observation procedures. These norms, which are also a positive aspect of standardized tests, are useful in identifying problem behaviors and in evaluating the success of intervention programs. Three examples of observations with norms are described.     

Preliminary data on a computerized test of finger speed and endurance

We set out to develop a computer-assisted finger-tapping task (the T3) that would measure motor speed much like the Reitan test, but that would also measure endurance. Data were collected for a convenience sample on both the T3 and the Reitan finger-tapping test. Moderate and significant correlations were obtained between the T3 and the Reitan test for both hands. Mean scores for the first 50 sec of the T3 were approximately 0.15 taps greater than the mean Reitan score for both the preferred and the nonpreferred hands, while the mean scores for the full 2 min of the T3 were 1.52 taps less than those of the Reitan test for the preferred hand, and 1.32 taps less for the nonpreferred hand. The mean for the last 40 sec with the preferred hand averaged 3.93 taps (7.62%) slower than for the first 40 sec, whereas for the nonpreferred hand, the difference was 5.12 taps (11.15%). These results are consistent with our intent to develop measures of (1) relatively pure motor speed (the first 50 sec of the T3); (2) motor speed combined with endurance (the full 2 min of the T3); and (3) finger endurance (the first 40 sec compared with the last 40 sec of the T3).     

Future directions in genetic counseling: practical and ethical considerations

The accelerated discovery of gene mutations that lead to increased risk of disease has led to the rapid development of predictive genetic tests. These tests improve the accuracy of assigning risk, but at a time when intervention or prevention strategies are largely unproved. In coming years, however, data will become increasingly available to guide treatment of genetic diseases. Eventually genetic testing will be performed for common diseases as well as for rare genetic conditions. This will challenge genetic counseling practice. The ethical principles that now guide this practice take into account the personal nature of test decision making, the need to respect individual self-determination, and the importance of client confidentiality. Certain of these principles may have to be modified as genetic testing becomes more widespread in order to meet the changing needs of clients and society. This paper offers recommendations to ensure that genetic counselors will take a leading role in the future delivery of ethical genetic services.     

Attractiveness of Occupations to High School Students

Information was obtained by questionnaire from a sample of approximately 3,100 Washington high school juniors and seniors concerning career aspirations and whether they would like or dislike each of 61 selected occupations. Analysis of the responses shows (1) that a wide range of occupations, including many nonprofessional occupations, would be attractive even though 67 per cent of the boys and 59 per cent of the girls aspired to professions, (2) that students tend to reject occupations traditionally followed primarily by the opposite sex as well as a number of other occupations, and (3) that the prestige ranking of a specific occupation is not a very good predictor of occupational likes and dislikes of students. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

The probabilistic import of illatives

It is not only overtly probabilistic illatives like makes it certain that but also apparently non-probabilistic ones like therefore that have probabilistic import. Illatives like therefore convey the meaning that the premise confers on the conclusion a probability not only greater than 0 but also greater than 1/2. But because they do not say whether that probability is equal to or less than 1, these illatives are appropriately called neutral.     

Vocabulary test format and differential relations to age

Although vocabulary tests are generally considered interchangeable, regardless of format, different tests can have different relations to age and to other cognitive abilities. In this study, 4 vocabulary test formats were examined: multiple-choice synonyms, multiple-choice antonyms, produce the definition, and picture identification. Results indicated that, although they form a single coherent vocabulary knowledge factor, the formats have different relations to age. In earlier adulthood, picture identification had the strongest growth, and produce the definition had the weakest. In later adulthood, picture identification had the strongest decline, and multiple-choice synonyms had the least. The formats differed in their relation to other cognitive variables, including reasoning, spatial visualization, memory, and speed. After accounting for the differential relations to other cognitive variables, differences in relation to age were eliminated with the exception of differences for the picture identification test. No theory of the aging of vocabulary knowledge fully explains these findings. These results suggest that using a single indicator of vocabulary may yield incomplete and somewhat misleading results about the aging of vocabulary knowledge.     

A New Definition of Genetic Counseling: National Society of Genetic Counselors’ Task Force Report

The Genetic Counseling Definition Task Force of the National Society of Genetic Counselors (NSGC) developed the following definition of genetic counseling that was approved by the NSGC Board of Directors: Genetic counseling is the process of helping people understand and adapt to the medical, psychological and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease. This process integrates the following: •Interpretation of family and medical histories to assess the chance of disease occurrence or recurrence. •Education about inheritance, testing, management, prevention, resources and research. •Counseling to promote informed choices and adaptation to the risk or condition. The definition was approved after a peer review process with input from the NSGC membership, genetic professional organizations, the NSGC legal counsel, and leaders of several national genetic advocacy groups.     

"Economic man" in cross-cultural perspective: behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies

Researchers from across the social sciences have found consistent deviations from the predictions of the canonical model of self-interest in hundreds of experiments from around the world. This research, however, cannot determine whether the uniformity results from universal patterns of human behavior or from the limited cultural variation available among the university students used in virtually all prior experimental work. To address this, we undertook a cross-cultural study of behavior in ultimatum, public goods, and dictator games in a range of small-scale societies exhibiting a wide variety of economic and cultural conditions. We found, first, that the canonical model - based on self-interest - fails in all of the societies studied. Second, our data reveal substantially more behavioral variability across social groups than has been found in previous research. Third, group-level differences in economic organization and the structure of social interactions explain a substantial portion of the behavioral variation across societies: the higher the degree of market integration and the higher the payoffs to cooperation in everyday life, the greater the level of prosociality expressed in experimental games. Fourth, the available individual-level economic and demographic variables do not consistently explain game behavior, either within or across groups. Fifth, in many cases experimental play appears to reflect the common interactional patterns of everyday life.     

Model Fit and Item Factor Analysis: Overfactoring,Underfactoring, and a Program to Guide Interpretation

In exploratory item factor analysis (IFA), researchers may use model fit statistics and commonly invoked fit thresholds to help determine the dimensionality of an assessment. However, these indices and thresholds may mislead as they were developed in a confirmatory framework for models with continuous, not categorical, indicators. The present study used Monte Carlo simulation methods to investigate the ability of popular model fit statistics (chi-square, root mean square error of approximation, the comparative fit index, and the Tucker–Lewis index) and their standard cutoff values to detect the optimal number of latent dimensions underlying sets of dichotomous items. Models were fit to data generated from three-factor population structures that varied in factor loading magnitude, factor intercorrelation magnitude, number of indicators, and whether cross loadings or minor factors were included. The effectiveness of the thresholds varied across fit statistics, and was conditional on many features of the underlying model. Together, results suggest that conventional fit thresholds offer questionable utility in the context of IFA.     

EXAMINING THE EFFECTS OF BRIEF TRAINING ON THE ATTITUDES AND FUTURE USE OF BEHAVIORAL METHODS BY TEACHERS

Teachers from government and independent schools anonymously completed a measure of attitudes towards applied behavior analysis (ABA) before and after participation in a short seminar on ABA. A total of 187 primary teachers provided data on professional qualifications, years of teaching, school type, number of students in the classroom, and prior knowledge of ABA. Data were also collected on the number of students with a disability the teacher had instructed. Survey results suggested that, before and after the seminar, teachers held negative attitudes towards ABA. These attitudes, however, significantly and positively shifted after attending the seminar. Neither the number of students taught with a disability over the last 5 years nor teacher type (e.g., specialist or classroom) nor school type (e.g., independent or government) was significantly related to the attitude measure. The findings have implications for ongoing teacher education and professional development, as well as for school psychologists tailoring interventions and framing recommendations for teachers in mainstream primary settings. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.