The threat simulation theory of the evolutionary function of dreaming: Evidence from dreams of traumatized children

The threat simulation theory of dreaming (TST) () states that dream consciousness is essentially an ancient biological defence mechanism, evolutionarily selected for its capacity to repeatedly simulate threatening events. Threat simulation during dreaming rehearses the cognitive mechanisms required for efficient threat perception and threat avoidance, leading to increased probability of reproductive success during human evolution. One hypothesis drawn from TST is that real threatening events encountered by the individual during wakefulness should lead to an increased activation of the system, a threat simulation response, and therefore, to an increased frequency and severity of threatening events in dreams. Consequently, children who live in an environment in which their physical and psychological well-being is constantly threatened should have a highly activated dream production and threat simulation system, whereas children living in a safe environment that is relatively free of such threat cues should have a weakly activated system. We tested this hypothesis by analysing the content of dream reports from severely traumatized and less traumatized Kurdish children and ordinary, non-traumatized Finnish children. Our results give support for most of the predictions drawn from TST. The severely traumatized children reported a significantly greater number of dreams and their dreams included a higher number of threatening dream events. The dream threats of traumatized children were also more severe in nature than the threats of less traumatized or non-traumatized children.     

Trauma and autobiographical memory: contents and determinants of earliest memories among war-affected Palestinian children

The contents of earliest memories (EM), as part of autobiographical memory, continue to fascinate scientists and therapists. However, research is scarce on the determinants of EM, especially among children. This study aims, first, to identify contents of EM of children living in war conditions, and, second, to analyse child gender, traumatic events and mental health as determinants of the contents of EM. The participants were 240 Palestinian schoolchildren from the Gaza Strip (10–12 years, M?=?11.35, SD?=?0.57; 49.4% girls). They responded to an open-ended EM question, and reported their trauma exposures (war trauma, losses and current traumatic events), posttraumatic stress, depressive symptoms and psychosocial well-being, indicating mental health. The EM coding involved nature, social orientation, emotional tone and specificity. Results showed, first, that 43% reported playing or visiting a nice place as EM, and about a third (30%) traumatic events or accidents (30%) or miscellaneous events (27%). The individual and social orientation were almost equally common, the emotional tone mainly neutral (45.5%), and 60% remembered a specific event. Second, boys remembered more EM involving traumatic events or accidents, and girls more social events. Third, war trauma was associated with less positive emotional tone and with more specific memories.     

Child and family‐related predictors of psychological outcomes in children adopted from abroad; what is the role of caregiver time?

International adoptees need to cope with stressful transitions and to develop secure attachment with their caregivers at the same time. Although most children adopted from abroad adjust fine, they are at increased risk of psychological problems. We investigated whether both child and family‐related factors are associated with later psychological problems and whether the length of time spent at home after adoption before daycare moderates these associations among internationally adopted children in Finland (FinAdo, Finnish Adoption Study). The sample consisted of 1,265 children (708 girls, 557 boys) who arrived in Finland before they started school (mean age 2 years at arrival). Later behavioral problems were measured using the Child Behavior Check List (CBCL). According to our results, male gender, older age, child's early clinical symptoms (problems of sensory processing) and single parenthood were associated with later behavioral problems measured by CBCL scores. Longer stay at home before the start of daycare or school modified these results. Longer stay at home was associated with less later behavioral externalizing problems in girls but not in boys compared to those who spent a shorter time at home.     

Maternal depression and dyadic interaction: the role of maternal attachment style

Maternal mental health and the contents of her representational world are important determinants of early parent–child relationship. We examined, first, the role of prenatal and postnatal depressive symptoms and maternal attachment style in predicting the quality of mother–child interaction. Second, we analysed whether the secure‐autonomous attachment style can protect the dyadic interaction from the negative effects of maternal depression. The participants were 59 mother–infant pairs examined during pregnancy (T1), 4–5 months postpartum (T2) and when the children were approximately 14 months old (T3). Maternal attachment style was assessed with a modified Adult Attachment Interview ‐procedure, depressive symptoms with Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, and observed mother–child interaction with Care Index. The results show that autonomous mothers were more sensitive and responsive and their children more co‐operative than dyads with dismissing maternal attachment style. As hypothesized, mothers with the combination of both prenatal and postpartum depressive symptoms were highly unresponsive in their dyadic interaction. Further, prenatal depressive symptoms had a stronger impact on maternal unresponsiveness than postnatal symptoms. As hypothesized, mother's autonomous attachment style protected the mother–child interaction from the negative impact of maternal postnatal depressive symptoms, whereas dyads with preoccupied mothers were especially at risk for interaction problems when mothers had postpartum depressive symptoms. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Can functional emotion regulation protect children's mental health from war trauma? A Palestinian study

Effective emotion regulation (ER) is expected to protect mental health in traumatic stress. We first analysed the protective (moderator) function of different ER strategies and the associations between ER and mental health. Second, we tested gender differences in the protective function of ER and the associations between ER strategies and mental health. Participants were 482 Palestinian children (girls 49.4%; 10–13 years, M = 11.29, SD = .68) whose ER was assessed by the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire and mental health by post‐traumatic stress (Children's Impact Event Scale), depressive, and psychological distress (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire) symptoms, and by psychosocial well‐being (Mental Health Continuum‐Short Form). War trauma involved 42 events. Results showed, first, that none of the ER strategies could protect a child's mental health from negative impact of war trauma, but self‐focused ER was associated with low depressive symptoms, and other‐facilitated ER with high psychological well‐being. However, controlling of emotions formed a comprehensive risk for children's mental health. Second, gender differences were found in the protective role of ER, as self‐focused and distractive ER formed a vulnerability among boys. The results are discussed in the context of emotional and regulative demands of war and life‐threat.     

The Search for a Current Mission Model in Cambodia

This paper is a contribution to the debate on the current mission model of the church in Southeast Asia. Scholars from St Elizabeth University in Bratislava, Slovakia, have performed qualitative research to examine the present mission model in Cambodia. Research was conducted on a sample of Catholic missionaries who have worked in Cambodia for a longer period of time. On the basis of this qualitative study, we have outlined and proposed some characteristics for today’s mission model in that country. Features included and emphasized dialogue with Buddhism, formation of spiritually mature people, social promotion and social inclusion, community development, the shift in inculturation regarding value systems, working in small groups, and reconciliation between ethnic communities.     

The Early Numeracy Test in Finnish: children's norms

This article concerns psychometric aspects of the Finnish Early Numeracy Test, which has been translated from the original Dutch Early Numeracy Test. The advantage of the test is that young children's numerical skills can be assessed systematically, which was not possible previously in Finland. A norm study was conducted in which the test was administered to a representative sample of 1,029 Finnish children. The reliability and validity results justify the use of the test as an early-childhood screening test and in research on number sense. The indicative effects of gender, parental professional education, domicile and number of siblings are discussed.     

Cluster C personality disorder and recovery from major depression: 24-month prospective follow-up

We investigated whether Cluster C personality disorder (CPD) is associated with recovery from depression. Changes in symptom scales in 30 patients with MD and CPD were compared with changes in 60 patients with MD alone over a 24-month follow-up period. Recovery of patients with MD and comorbid CPD was inferior to recovery of those with MD alone based on the Hamilton and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scales, and the SCL-90 total score. Only 18% of those with MD alone but 47% of those with CPD and MD met the criteria for major depression at the end of the 24-month follow-up. Multiple logistic regression analyses revealed an independent association between the lack of recovery (BDI score > 9 at 24 months) and the presence of CPD (OR 4.9, 95% CI 1.5-16.0). Moreover, the presence of CPD associated with the presence of major depression at 24 months (OR 4.2, 95% CI 1.4-12.2). The presence of CPD hinders the alleviation of depressive symptoms in major depression.