Witnessed aggression: influence of an observer's sex and values on aggressive responding.

Two experiments investigated the effects of the presence of an observer on aggressive responding. In one experiment, male subjects observed by a male aggressed more than those observed by a female. When the male observer was removed from the situation, subjects' level of aggressiveness more closely matched the level manifested by the opponent. The removal of the female observer had little effect on the subjects' behavior. In the second experiment, the male or female observer of the subject's behavior was disguised as a member of an organization with explicit values (aggressive or pacifistic) regarding the use of aggression. In this case, significant differences in aggression were associated with the observer's values but not the observer's sex. Following the departure of the observer, the shock settings of subjects in the two aggressive-value observer groups showed a signifcant decrease. The average shock setting of subjects in the two pacifistic-value observer groups remained at about the same level. In sum, the results indicated that the subjects' aggressive behavior was apparently a function of their expectations of approval for such behavior, based on the inferred or explicit values of the observer. The results were further discussed in terms of social learning theory.     

Sensory features and the reduction of imaginal interference

Interference generated among the sensory features of PA stimulus words is not eliminated by processing at the imaginal level. This experiment was planned to test the reverse possibility. Will interference generated by similar imaginal referents be eliminated by sensory overlap between the stimuli and their responses? Thus, stimulus words did or did not evoke similar images, pairs did or did not share initial letters, and lists were acquired either under an instructional set t o form interacting images or to repeat the items aloud. The results indicated that the imagery strategy was superior to the repetition strategy in all conditions, and that stimulus interference was statistically eliminated when pairs shared the same initial letters. The findings were interpreted as consistent with a levels of processing conceptualization.     

The Social Instigation and Control of Physical Aggression

Forty male undergraduates were subjects in an experiment testing persuasibility under conditions of aggression and nonaggression. Social pressure (aggressive or pacifist) was used to persuade subjects to administer either an intense shock or a mild shock, via an electrode, to opponents. Subjects were also tested alone and in the mere presence of an audience. Aggressive social pressure significantly increased shock settings toward a nonaggressive opponent. Pacifistic social pressure significantly decreased aggression against an unmitigating aggressive opponent. The social pressure manipulation influenced the subjects' subsequent alone behavior in the former, but not the latter case. Mere audience presence mildly facilitated aggressive responding toward both types of opponents.     

Attitudinal maintenance of cognitive categorization

Two experiments were performed that investigated attitudinal influences on cognitive categorization. The studies assessed categorization as a dynamic process with a multiple-sort (MS) technique, having Ss recategorize sentences unti! they ran out of meaningful categories. Condition I allowed Ss to use any dimensions they chose, and Condition It imposed the restraint of the “favorable-unfavorable” dimension. No effects of involvement were found when unrestricted sorting was allowed but were found when the evaluative dimension was imposed. There appeared to be a tendency for attitudinal involvement to maintain complexity across sorts. Results were discussed in terms of the influence of dimensions and the possible effects of certain stimulus properties on the maintenance of categorization complexity.     

An interpretation of research of feedback interruption in speech.

The controversial question of the scope of sensory control in the voluntary motor patterns involved in speech is examined by reviewing studies in which the auditory, tactile, and proprioceptive feedback channels have been distorted or interrupted. The author makes a case for open loop control of well-learned speech patterns under normal circumstances. The concept of internal feedback is introduced as a possible control system of skilled speech, whereas response feedback and external feedback are viewed as necessary for children developing speech or adults learning new speech patterns.     

Educational–Occupational Mismatch,Race/Ethnicity,and Immigrant Wealth Attainment

This paper uses wealth attainment as an indicator of economic integration and assesses how educational–occupational mismatch (i.e., over/underqualification) and race/ethnicity affect the wealth attainment of a sample of legal permanent residents in the USA. Using data from the New Immigrant Survey, this paper finds that overqualification is positively associated with wealth attainment, but below the rate for adequately qualified workers in the same occupation. Underqualified immigrants are associated with a pattern of wealth attainment that is equivalent to the adequately qualified. Racial/ethnic wealth inequality among legal permanent residents generally reflects the well-documented pattern among the U.S. native-born. This paper concludes with a discussion that places these results alongside previous research that examines the relationship between educational–occupational mismatch and income among immigrants.     

Evolution of Counseling in Jamaica: Past,Present, and Future Trends

Counseling maintains a small yet growing presence in Jamaica as a profession. Practitioners are confronted with several societal problems. The authors provide a historical overview of Jamaica and a synopsis of the development of counseling. The emergence of counseling services through the limitations of psychiatry and psychology sets the stage for current practices and notable involvement of guidance counselors. It is concluded that the continued growth and effectiveness of counseling is dependent on overcoming negative attitudes and economic barriers.     

A Comparison of Children with Epilepsy to an Age- and IQ-Matched Control Group on the Children's Memory Scale

Past research has found that children with epilepsy exhibit decreased memory skills. In addition, some studies have found that children with epilepsy obtain significantly lower IQ scores than controls. In an effort to examine whether children with epilepsy have specific memory weaknesses versus global cognitive difficulties, the present study compared the performance of 62 children (age range = 6–16 years). Thirty-one children with epilepsy were compared to 31 age- and IQ-matched controls on the Children's Memory Scale (CMS) to determine whether differences in memory skills persist when IQ is matched. An independent t-test comparing index and scaled scores was performed. The results indicated that with the exception of the Word Pairs subtest (p < .01), children with epilepsy did not differ significantly on the CMS subtests when IQ was matched. This suggests that list-learning paradigms may be particularly sensitive to memory impairments in children with epilepsy and/or that children with epilepsy have more global cognitive impairments.