Girls’ Spatial Skills and Arithmetic Strategies in First Grade as Predictors of Fifth-Grade Analytical Math Reasoning

This study investigated longitudinal pathways leading from early spatial skills in first-grade girls to their fifth-grade analytical math reasoning abilities (N = 138). First-grade assessments included spatial skills, verbal skills, addition/subtraction skills, and frequency of choice of a decomposition or retrieval strategy on the addition/subtraction problems. In fifth grade, girls were given an arithmetic fluency test, a mental rotation spatial task, and a numeric and algebra math reasoning test. Using structural equation modeling, the estimated path model accounted for 87% of the variance in math reasoning. First-grade spatial skills had a direct pathway to fifth-grade math reasoning as well as an indirect pathway through first-grade decomposition strategy use. The total effect of first-grade spatial skills was significantly higher in predicting fifth-grade math reasoning than all other predictors. First-grade decomposition strategy use had the second strongest total effect, while retrieval strategy use did not predict fifth-grade math reasoning. It was first-grade spatial skills (not fifth-grade) that directly predicted fifth-grade math reasoning. Consequently, the results support the importance of early spatial skills in predicting later math. As expected, decomposition strategy use in first grade was linked to fifth-grade math reasoning indirectly through first-grade arithmetic accuracy and fifth-grade arithmetic fluency. However, frequency of first-grade decomposition use also showed a direct pathway to fifth-grade arithmetic reasoning, again stressing the importance of these early cognitive processes on later math reasoning.     

Characterizing Clinical Genetic Counselors’ Countertransference Experiences: an Exploratory Study

Countertransference (CT) refers to conscious and unconscious emotions, fantasies, behaviors, perceptions, and psychological defenses genetic counselors experience in response to any aspect of genetic counseling situations (Weil 2010). Some authors theorize about the importance of recognizing and managing CT, but no studies solely aim to explore genetic counselors’ experiences of the phenomenon. This study examined the extent to which clinical genetic counselors’ perceive themselves as inclined to experience CT, gathered examples of CT encountered in clinical situations, and assessed their CT management strategies. An anonymous online survey, sent to NSGC members, yielded 127 usable responses. Participants completed Likert-type items rating their CT propensities; 57 of these individuals also provided examples of CT they experienced in their practice. Factor analysis of CT propensities tentatively suggested four factors: Control, Conflict Avoidance, Directiveness, and Self-Regulation, accounting for 38.5% of response variance. Thematic analysis of CT examples yielded five common triggers: general similarity to patient, medical/genetic similarity, angry patients, patient behaves differently from counselor expectations, and disclosing bad news; six common manifestations: being self-focused, projecting feelings onto the patient, intense emotional reaction to patient, being overly invested, disengagement, and physical reaction; five CT effects: disruption in rapport building, repaired empathy, over-identification, conversation does not reach fullest potential, and counselor is drained emotionally; and three management strategies: recognizing CT as it occurs, self-reflection, and consultation. Results suggest CT is a common experience, occurring in both “routine” and emotionally complex cases. Training programs, continuing education, and peer supervision might include discussion of CT, informed by examples from the present study, to increase genetic counselor awareness and skills for managing the phenomenon.     

CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE CONFORMITY TO FEMININE NORMS INVENTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF AN ABBREVIATED VERSION: THE CFNI-45

The present study undertakes the first factor analysis of the Conformity to Feminine Norms Inventory (CFNI) conducted since the instrument's development. Confirmatory factor analysis using data from 243 women offered mixed support for the original 84-item CFNI structure and pointed to ways to modify the structure and reduce the length of the measure; these modifications resulted in the nine-factor CFNI-45. The CFNI-45 demonstrates superior data-model fit and comparable reliability coefficients relative to the original form of the measure. The CFNI-45 subscales also yielded high correlations with corresponding original form subscales, supporting use of the CFNI-45 as an efficient measure of the original constructs. Potential uses of the CFNI-45 in research and practice that address the role of feminine gender-role conformity in women's experiences are discussed.     

Illustrating a mixed-method approach for validating culturally specific constructs

The purpose of this article is to illustrate a mixed-method approach (i.e., combining qualitative and quantitative methods) for advancing the study of construct validation in cross-cultural research. The article offers a detailed illustration of the approach using the responses 612 Sri Lankan adolescents provided to an ethnographic survey. Such surveys offer a connection between the primary methodologies used (i.e., ethnographic and factor analytic approaches) as they are predicated on qualitative inquiry and allow for the application of factor analysis. If the qualitatively derived constructs are comparable to factor analytic results, then triangulation across methods is achieved and a survey can be developed that is sensitive to culturally specific phenomena. The illustration of this approach uses data from an ethnographic survey of self-concept, as defined by Harter (1999) [Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York: The Guilford Press]. The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York: The Guilford Press]. The overall finding is that three constructs emerged from the factor analysis and were reconciled with the ethnographic data.     

An Investigation of Genetic Counselor Experiences in Peer Group Supervision

Peer supervision groups have been studied in counseling fields including psychotherapy and social work. However, limited research exists regarding genetic counselor peer supervision groups. In the present study five major research questions were investigated: (1) How prevalent is peer group supervision among genetic counselors? (2) What motivates genetic counselors to join and continue to seek peer group supervision? (3) What comprises the content, agenda, and structure of group meetings? (4) What are participants’ perceptions of group dynamics, including conflicts, cohesion, and leadership? and (5) What are the perceived benefits and limitations of participating in peer group supervision? A total of 214 genetic counselors completed an online survey, and 70 (34.8%) reported being involved currently in peer group supervision. Fifteen of these 70 respondents were interviewed regarding their experiences in peer group supervision. Inductive analysis of their responses yielded 11 domains and 37 categories. Practice implications and research recommendations are discussed.     

The visual metacognition questionnaire: a measure of intuitions about vision

Recent research has revealed a series of striking limits to visual perception. One important aspect of these demonstrations is the degree to which they conflict with intuition; people often believe that they will be able to see things that experiments demonstrate they cannot see. This metacognitive error has been explored with reference to a few specific visual limits, but no study has yet explored people's intuitions about vision more generally. In this article we present the results of a broad survey of these intuitions. Results replicate previous overestimates and underestimates of visual performance and document new misestimates of performance in tasks that assess inattention blindness and visual knowledge. We also completed an initial exploratory factor analysis of the items and found that estimates of visual performance for well-structured information tend to covary. These results represent an important initial step in organizing the intuitions that may prove important in a variety of settings, including performance of complex visual tasks, evaluation of others people's visual experience, and even the teaching of psychology.     

Infants’ developing understanding of the link between looker and object

Three studies investigated infants’ understanding that gaze involves a relation between a person and the object of his or her gaze. Infants were habituated to an event in which an actor turned and looked at one of two toys. Then, infants saw test events in which (1) the actor turned to the same side as during habituation to look at a different toy, or (2) the actor turned to the other side to look at the same toy as during habituation. The first of these involved a change in the relation between actor and object. The second involved a new physical motion on the part of the actor but no change in the relation between actor and object. Seven‐ and 9‐month‐old infants did not respond to the change in relation between actor and object, although infants at both ages followed the actor's gaze to the toys. In contrast, 12‐month‐old infants responded to the change in the actor–object relation. Control conditions verified that the paradigm was a sensitive index of the younger infants’ representations of action: 7‐ and 9‐month‐olds responded to a change in the actor–object relation when the actor's gaze was accompanied by a grasp. Taken together, these findings indicate that gaze‐following does not initially go hand in hand with understanding the relation between a person who looks and the object of his or her gaze, and that infants begin to understand this relation between 9 and 12 months.     

A Survey of Clinical Supervision in Genetic Counseling

Three hundred and thirty-five full members of the National Society of Genetic Counselors completed a survey concerning the nature of clinical supervision for genetic counseling students. Slightly over half (54.3%, n = 182) had provided clinical supervision within the past 5 years. Of those who supervised, 66.7% had 5 years or less supervision experience, and 55% had supervised 10 or fewer students. The majority became supervisors because they enjoy teaching and contributing to the profession. Common reasons for not supervising include no local graduate program, and had never been asked to supervise. Live supervision is the most prevalent student evaluation method: every supervisor reported providing one-on-one oral feedback, and 47.3% indicated that they always provide feedback immediately following a counseling session. The most frequent challenges involve students who lack technical knowledge and who fail to incorporate feedback. Training, policy, and research implications are discussed.     

Marital Therapy Caught Between Person and Public: Christian Traditions on Marriage

This article addresses a crisis in marital therapy caught between concern for individual well-being and marriage as a social institution. Marital therapy would be enriched by conversation with three models of marriage: Roman Catholic subsidiarity theory, Protestant covenant view, and liberation theology and corresponding languages of social goods, covenant, and mutual responsibility. The authors urge therapists to see marriage as private and social at the same time and to help couples explore the meaning of marital commitment, the connection between personal well-being and marriage's wider social goods, and the dynamics of shared power and radical mutuality in marriage.     

The influence of cue-task association and location on switch cost and alternating-switch cost.

Task-switching performance is strongly influenced by whether the imperative stimulus uniquely specifies which task to perform: Switch cost is substantial with bivalent stimuli but is greatly reduced with univalent stimuli, suggesting that available contextual information influences processing in task-switching situations. The present study examined whether task-relevant information provided by task cues influences the magnitude of switch cost in a parallel manner. Cues presented 500 ms prior to a trivalent stimulus indicated which of three tasks to perform. These cues either had a preexisting association with the to-be-performed task (verbal cues), or a recently learned association with the task (spatial and shape cues). The results paralleled the effects of stimulus bivalence: substantial switch cost with recently learned cue-task associations and greatly reduced switch cost with preexisting cue-task associations. This suggests that both stimulus-based and cue-based information can activate the relevant task set, possibly providing external support to endogenous control processes. Alternating-switch cost, a greater cost for switching back to a recently abandoned task, was also observed with both preexisting and recently learned cue-task associations, but only when all tasks were presented in a consistent spatial location. When spatial location was used to cue the to-be-performed tasks, no alternating-switch cost was observed, suggesting that different processes may be involved when tasks are uniquely located in space. Specification of the nature of these processes may prove to be complex, as post-hoc inspection of the data suggested that for the spatial cue condition, the alternating-switch cost may oscillate between cost and benefit, depending on the relevant task.