The practice of forensic psychology. A look toward the future in light of the past

In a 1987 American Psychologist article, Tom Grisso summarized the state of forensic psychological assessment, noted its limitations and potential, and offered suggestions for researchers and practitioners interested in contributing to its future. Since that time, there have been many important developments in the field of forensic psychology, as well as in clinical psychology more generally, some of which were anticipated and recommended by Grisso, and some of which were not. Forensic psychology is now at a crossroads, and the specialty must make an effort to respond to current challenges if it is to aid in the administration of justice by assisting legal decision makers. The need to distinguish between and identify levels of forensic knowledge and practice, establish guidelines for practice, educate legal consumers, and devote more attention to treatment issues in forensic contexts is highlighted.     

Perceiving personal discrimination: the role of group status and legitimizing ideology

It was hypothesized that relative group status and endorsement of ideologies that legitimize group status differences moderate attributions to discrimination in intergroup encounters. According to the status-legitimacy hypothesis, the more members of low-status groups endorse the ideology of individual mobility, the less likely they are to attribute negative outcomes from higher status group members to discrimination. In contrast, the more members of high-status groups endorse individual mobility, the more likely they are to attribute negative outcomes from lower status group members to discrimination. Results from 3 studies using 2 different methodologies provide support for this hypothesis among members of different high-status (European Americans and men) and low-status (African Americans, Latino Americans, and women) groups.     

The interactive effects of conscientiousness and agreeableness on job performance

The authors hypothesized that the relationship between conscientiousness and job performance would be stronger for persons high in agreeableness than for those low in agreeableness. Results of hierarchical moderated regression analyses for 7 independent samples of employees across diverse occupations provided support for the hypothesis in 5 of the samples. In samples supporting the hypothesis, among the highly conscientious workers, those low in agreeableness were found to receive lower ratings of job performance than workers high in agreeableness. One explanation for lack of an interaction between conscientiousness and agreeableness in the other 2 samples is that those jobs were not characterized by frequent, cooperative interactions with others. Overall, the results show that highly conscientious workers who lack interpersonal sensitivity may be ineffective, particularly in jobs requiring cooperative interchange with others.     

The ethical confrontation of the unethical forensic colleague

In the course of clinical and forensic work, psychologists sometimes discover serious weaknesses in knowledge, performance, or ethics in other psychologists' work. The ethical code of the American Psychological Association mandates confronting such a psychologist prior to making a professional complaint. This mandatory confrontation typically is omitted because of a sense of awkwardness or a fear of insulting the other psychologist. Education and training in psychology does not cover this sensitive and important area. In this article, sample templates of letters are provided to meet that ethical requirement and to begin to resolve problem behaviors by colleagues.     

Interpersonal behaviors and friendship in a Chinese culture

This research is designed to assess the links between interpersonal behaviors and relationship development. A measure of friendship, labeled 'communion', was developed that focused exclusively on the characteristics of the relationship itself. It was hypothesized that greater use by both parties of behaviors promoting the interests of the other, 'beneficence', and of behaviors respecting the rights of the other, 'restraint', would result in greater communion between the roommates by the end of their first 6 months together. Both dimensions of behavior proved to be related to communion, although beneficence by both parties was relatively stronger than restraint. These findings were discussed in terms of other types of relationships where there is less freedom of involvement and greater hierarchy.     

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase activity in the entorhinal cortex is necessary for long-term spatial memory

Lesion studies have provided evidence that the entorhinal cortex (EC) participates in spatial memory. However, the molecular cascades that underlie memory-associated changes in the EC and its specific role in spatial memory, however, have not been clearly delineated. Recently, it has been shown that activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk, a mitogen-activated protein kinase family member) in the dorsal hippocampus is necessary for spatial memory. To examine whether similar mechanisms are used for spatial memory storage in the EC, Erk activity was inhibited after training in the Morris water maze. Bilateral infusion of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitor PD098059 into the EC immediately after training resulted in a memory deficit observed during a retention test performed 48 h later. This deficit was abolished with pretraining in a different water maze in which animals were able to learn the general task requirements and the appropriate search strategies. The absence of a deficit indicates that Erk activity in the EC may be involved in storing the task requirements or the search strategies. The findings presented in this article are consistent with the idea that the EC is involved in spatial memory and indicate that Erk activity is necessary for memory consolidation in this structure.     

Do personality factors predict job satisfaction?

Two studies investigated the relationships between personality traits and aspects of job satisfaction. In Study 1, job applicants (n=250) completed the Eysenck Personality Profiler and the Work Values Questionnaire (WVQ), which requires respondents to rate various work-related facets according to the extent to which they contribute to their job satisfaction. These facets were combined into two composites (hygiene and motivator) based on previous research. The three personality superfactors accounted for a small percentage of the variance in importance ratings (about 5%). In Study 2, employees (n=82) completed a measure of the ‘Big Five’ personality traits and the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (JSQ), which assesses both what respondents consider as important in their work environment as well as their satisfaction with their current job. Importance ratings were again combined into two composites while job satisfaction ratings were factor analyzed and three factors, differentiated along hygiene versus motivator lines, emerged. Personality traits again accounted for a small percentage of the total variance both in importance ratings and in levels of job satisfaction. It is concluded that personality does not have a strong or consistent influence either on what individuals perceive as important in their work environment or on their levels of job satisfaction.     

Using high frame rate CMOS sensors for three-dimensional eye tracking

A novel three-dimensional eye tracker is described and its performance evaluated. In contrast to previous devices based on conventional video standards, the present eye tracker is based on programmable CMOS image sensors, interfaced directly to digital processing circuitry to permit real-time image acquisition and processing. This architecture provides a number of important advantages, including image sampling rates of up to 400/sec measurement, direct pixel addressing for preprocessing and acquisition, and hard-disk storage of relevant image data. The reconfigurable digital processing circuitry also facilitatesin-line optimization of the front-end, time-critical processes. The primary acquisition algorithm for tracking the pupil and other eye features is designed around the generalized Hough transform. The tracker permits comprehensive measurement of eye movement (three degrees of freedom) and head movement (six degrees of freedom), and thus provides the basis for many types of vestibulo-oculomotor and visual research. The device has been qualified by the German Space Agency (DLR) and NASA for deployment on the International Space Station. It is foreseen that the device will be used together with appropriate stimulus generators as a general purpose facility for visual and vestibular experiments. Initial verification studies with an artificial eye demonstrate a measurement resolution of better than 0.1° in all three components (i.e., system noise for each of the components measured as 0.006° H, 0.005° V, and 0.016° T. Over a range of ±20° eye rotation, linearity was found to be <0.5% (H), <0.5% (V), and <2.0% (T). A comparison with the scierai search coil technique yieldednear equivalent values for the systemnoise and the thickness of Listing’s plane.