Responsiveness in Interactions of Mothers and Sons with ADHD: Relations to Maternal and Child Characteristics

We observed mother–child interactions, at baseline, in 136 families of 7–10-year-old boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who were part of a large clinical trial, the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD. Independent coders rated stylistic aspects of maternal behavior and factor analyses revealed a responsiveness factor that included overall responsiveness and sensitivity to the child, warmth and acceptance, and appropriate control. We examined relations between maternal responsiveness and (a) maternal depressive symptoms and maternal childhood ADHD symptoms, and (b) boys' ADHD and conduct problem symptoms. Controlling for all other variables, maternal responsiveness displayed a unique negative association with mother-reported child conduct problems, but not with child ADHD symptoms, and also was negatively related to maternal depressive symptoms. We discuss the unique association between mother-reported child conduct problems and parenting, and note the utility of studying parenting style in families of children with ADHD. We describe the results within the framework of a transactional model.     

Mechanical efficiency and metabolic cost as measures of learning a novel gross motor task

"Efficiency, " or economy of movement with respect to energy expended in achieving the goal of the task, is implicit in many definitions of skilled performance. This study examined changes in mechanical efficiency and transport efficiency on a novel gross motor skill. The subjects were 5 physically fit adult males who were asked to perform 20 3-min trials walking on hands and feet (crawling) on a motor-driven treadmill at constant speed (0.76 m/s). Transport efficiency, the metabolic cost of transporting the body mass a given distance at constant speed, improved significantly over practice trials. Mechanical efficiency, derived from the mechanical power output of individual body segments, showed an overall improvement of 13.7% by the last day of practice. Even though this improvement was not statistically significant it appears to be greater than that expected due to physiological training effects. The efficiency measures correlated significantly with changes in limb kinematics. It was concluded that with practice subjects tailored their movement pattern to produce energy efficient adaptations to task constraints. These findings provide empirical support for theoretical perspectives that have emphasized biological principles in the organization of motor coordination and control.     

Sex and birth order differences in filial behavior

Personal interviews were conducted with 499 children of elderly white widows. Results showed no birth order differences in the provision of assistance to the elderly; however, there were significant sex differences. Daughters performed more caretaking activities and social services and provided more emotional support for their mothers than did sons. Sons had a tendency, though insignificant, to provide more advisory assistance to their mothers. After adjusting for situational differences between daughters and sons a sex difference remained only for the provision of emotional support.     

Family Support and Conflict: Prospective Relations to Adolescent Depression

The relations between family support, family conflict, and adolescent depressive symptomatology were examined longitudinally in a sample of 231 female and 189 male adolescents and their mothers. Structural equation models revealed that less supportive and more con-flictual family environments were associated with greater depressive symptomatology both concurrently and prospectively over a 1-year period. Conversely, adolescent depressive symptomatology did not predict deterioration in family relationships. Depressive symptomatology and, to a greater extent, family characteristics showed high levels of stability over the 1-year period. Counter to our expectations, the relations between family variables and depressive symptomatology were similar for boys and girls. The results suggest that the quality of family interactions is relevant for understanding the development of depressive symptoms in adolescents.     

Performance on trials without knowledge results (KR) in reduced relative frequency presentations of KR

Following Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter's (1984) discussion of knowledge of results (KR) as a variable influencing learning, the effect of varying relative frequency of KR while holding absolute number of trials constant was examined. In two experiments, the same treatment groups were compared in acquisition, retention (after 2 min and 24 hr), and on their pattern of responses on the sequence of no-KR trials following a KR trial. In Experiment 1, differences between groups in acquisition were consistent with the number of KR trials received, and there were no differences between groups in either of the retention conditions. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 with a more difficult task. There were no between-group differences in acquisition. In Retention 1, the 100% and 33% relative frequency groups outperformed the less frequent KR groups, whereas in Retention 2, this trend was reversed. The findings from Experiment 2 provide qualified support for the hypothesis that reduced relative frequency of KR in acquisition facilitates performance in retention. The pattern of responses on the sequence of no-KR trials following a KR trial were consistent with Adams' (1971) perceptual-trace decay hypothesis.     

Pupillary and heart rate reactivity in children with minimal brain dysfunction

This study attempted to replicate and extend previous findings on autonomic arousal and responsivity in children with diagnoses of minimal brain dysfunction (MBD). Pupil size, heart rate, skin conductance, and skin temperature were recorded from 32 MBD and 45 control children during a session that included presentation of visual stimuli, simple reaction time (RT), a cold pressor procedure, and rest periods. The MBD children were tested both off and on clinical dosages of stimulant drugs in a crossover design. Evidence of higher than normal arousal levels in the unmedicated MBD Ss was obtained from resting skin conductance and, more tenuously, from pupil size. Lower phasic responsivity in the MBD children was evidenced by slower RT, less cardiac deceleration to both light and RT stimuli, and smaller pupil dilation to the RT stimuli. Spontaneous pupillary constrictions during rest periods, presumably indicating drowsiness, were observed about equally in MBD and control children. Stimulant drugs raised arousal levels but did not reverse the responsivity deficits. The lower phasic reactivity in the MBD group and the effects of stimulant drugs on arousal indices confirm earlier reports. The finding of higher arousal in drug-free MBD children is incompatible with the low arousal hypothesis of MBD but is consistent with a previous report of the effects of a stimulating environment on these children.This work was supported in part by a grant from the Ittleson Family Foundation. The authors thank Frank Abate for technical assistance.     

Adaptation to displaced vision: Evidence for transfer of adaptation and long-lasting aftereffects

Aftereffects following a single exposure to visual rearrangement last for 48 h and longer. Following multiple spaced exposures to visual rearrangement, aftereffects persisted for at least 2 weeks. Over the course of the multiple exposures, subjects showed diminished scatter when pointing without sight of hand to visual targets but did not show diminished constant errors. Adaptation achieved in one visuomotor transferred nearly perfectly to a test situation involving somewhat different movement demands.     

Familial Aggregation of ADHD Characteristics

Patterns of familial aggregation of ADHD symptoms in parents of ADHD and non-ADHD children were examined. Within the ADHD sample, symptom aggregation was examined as a function of biological relationship, parent and child gender, and children's comorbid diagnoses. Participants consisted of parents of 579 children with ADHD, Combined Type participating in the multimodal treatment study of children with ADHD and parents of 288 normal control participants. Adult symptoms of ADHD were measured by both self-report and report of a significant other. Results indicated that the parents of children with ADHD had higher ratings of inattention/cognitive problems, hyperactivity/restlessness, impulsivity/emotional lability, and lower self-concept than parents of children without ADHD on both self-report and other-report ratings. Within the ADHD sample of children, other-report ratings of inattention/cognitive problems and impulsivity/emotional lability were higher for biological parents compared to nonbiological parents whereas self-ratings were not related to biological status. These findings support previous research documenting familial aggregation of ADHD and appear to strengthen the hypothesis that there is a genetic contribution to ADHD.     

Anxiety as a Predictor and Outcome Variable in the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD (MTA)

Initial moderator analyses in the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD (MTA) suggested that child anxiety ascertained by parent report on the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children 2.3 (DISC Anxiety) differentially moderated the outcome of treatment. Left unanswered were questions regarding the nature of DISC Anxiety, the impact of comorbid conduct problems on the moderating effect of DISC Anxiety, and the clinical significance of DISC Anxiety as a moderator of treatment outcome. Thirty-three percent of MTA subjects met DSM-III-R criteria for an anxiety disorder excluding simple phobias. Of these, two-thirds also met DSM-III-R criteria for comorbid oppositional-defiant or conduct disorder whereas one-third did not, yielding an odds ratio of approximately two for DISC Anxiety, given conduct problems. In this context, exploratory analyses of baseline data suggest that DISC Anxiety may reflect parental attributions regarding child negative affectivity and associated behavior problems (unlike fearfulness), particularly in the area of social interactions, another core component of anxiety that is more typically associated with phobic symptoms. Analyses using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) indicate that the moderating effect of DISC Anxiety continues to favor the inclusion of psychosocial treatment for anxious ADHD children irrespective of the presence or absence of comorbid conduct problems. This effect, which is clinically meaningful, is confined primarily to parent-reported outcomes involving disruptive behavior, internalizing symptoms, and inattention; and is generally stronger for combined than unimodal treatment. Contravening earlier studies, no adverse effect of anxiety on medication response for core ADHD or other outcomes in anxious or nonanxious ADHD children was demonstrated. When treating ADHD, it is important to search for comorbid anxiety and negative affectivity and to adjust treatment strategies accordingly.