The combination of explicit and implicit learning processes in task control

Summary Two experiments look at the combination of explicit and implicit learning processes on a single task. Subjects are required to control the rate of sugar output in a small sugar production factory while maintaining cordial relations with the union. Experiment 1 investigates whether subjects can learn to control this task, which relies on their knowing about both salient and nonsalient relationships. It looks at how performance on the task relates to explicit verbalisable knowledge (as assessed by written questionnaire). Experiment 2 considers alternative ways of tapping the more implicit aspects of subjects' knowledge.     

TOWARDS A UNIVERSAL PSYCHOLOGY OF COGNITIVE COMPETENCE

A position of cultural relativism is outlined and employed in an examination of variations in folk conceptions and psychologists' conceptions of cognitive competence in a variety of cultures. At the same time it is proposed that pan-cultural characteristics of cognitive competence must also be sought. A framework for exploring both the local and the universal features of cognitive functioning is presented as a guide for future research, and as a test of current formulations.     

On the relationship between task performance and associated verbalizable knowledge

Three experiments explore the relationship between performance on a cognitive task and the explicit or reportable knowledge associated with that performance (assessed here by written post-task questionnaire). They examine how this relationship is affected by task experience, verbal instruction and concurrent verbalization. It is shown that practice significantly improves ability to control semi-complex computer-implemented systems but has no effect on the ability to answer related questions. In contrast, verbal instruction significantly improves ability to answer questions but has no effect on control performance. Verbal instruction combined with concurrent verbalization does lead to a significant improvement in control scores. Verbalization alone, however, has no effect on task performance or question answering.     

A comparison of diagnostic labeling by school psychologists and psychiatric personnel

This study compared judgments regarding deviant child behavior made by 14 school psychologists with those made by 15 psychiatric personnel from a previous study in order to determine whether the law of parsimony is utilized in attaching labels. It was found that the school psychologist's behavior in attaching labels to deviant child behavior is diametrically opposite that of psychiatric personnel; school psychologists tend to be more attracted to the less complex labels and/or interpretation impressions.     

ON CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARABILITY

La nécessité se fait sentir, pour les psychologues qui travaillent dans une perspective interculturelle, d'expliciter leurs méthodes et de parvenir à un certain consensus qui permette de juger et de comparer les résultats. l'auteur propose ici un cadre de travail méthodologique pour la recherche interculturelle, qui s'inspire des discussions passées de certains anthropologues. Trois conditions s'avèrent nécessaires si l'on veut donner quelque validité aux comparaisons interculturelles des comportements : I^o Il faut d'abord démontrer qu'il y a équivalence fonctionnelle des comportements dans l'une et l'autre des cultures considérées; C'est-à-dire que seul, un comportement qui est une réponse à un problème identique peut être comparé. 2^° On peut, à titre d'essai, partir d'une conception du comportement observé qui est indépendante des cultures considérées (généralité hypothétique) à condition que ce soit seulement comme point de départ et que ce comportement soit ensuite conçu dans les termes mêmes de chaque culture (particularité). Les aspects communs peuvent alors être utilisés pour construire un cadre de comparaison valide pour les deux cultures (généralité dériv?e) et même pour toutes les autres cultures (universalité). 3⁰ Des instruments et des techniques de mesure peuvent alors être inventés, qui seront basés sur ce cadre de comparaison, pour autant qu'on puisse atteindre une équivalence conceptuelle. A titre d'exemple, les notions d'intelligence et de dépendance du champ sont discutées dans cette perspective méthodologique. l'auteur invite les lecteurs à commenter et à discuter le cadre de travail qu'il propose.     

Stimulus selection by the retarded: list length and response requirement.

Institutionalized retardates learned paired associates of redundant trigrams and double digits (e.g., DLZ/10) and were given a transfer test to measure their stimulus selection. List length (four or six items) and response requirement (recall or recognition) were both manipulated during learning. The finding of most interest was that the retardates became more efficient at cue selection as the amount of information increased. This finding suggests that, at least to some extent, these retarded persons actively tended to choose a stimulus-processing strategy that puts a low load on memory as the overall memory requirements of the paired-associate task were increased.     

Vocalization and looking behaviour of Down's syndrome infants.

The effect of contingent and non-contingent vocal stimulation on vocalization and looking behaviour was investigated for 10 Down's syndrome infants. There were two experimental sessions consisting of four stages, namely 1 min base-line, 1 min experimental condition, a further 1 min base-line and a final 2 min experimental condition. Maternal vocal stimulation was contingent upon infant vocalization for the experimental conditions of one session and was presented every 10 s independent of infant vocalization for the experimental conditions of the other session. Neither condition increased infant vocalization but there was a significant decrease in looking at mother during the base-line stages which followed maternal vocalization (F = 5.07, d.f. = 4, 28, P less than 0.01). It is suggested that looking behaviour may be an important indication of competence in pre-linguistic social communication for developmentally delayed infants.     

The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (BNBAS)

Summary The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment attempts to capture the behaviors of the neonate as he defends himself from intrusive, negative stimuli, and controls interfering motor and autonomic responses in order to attend to important social and nonsocial stimuli. In order to conceptualize the 26 behavioral items and 20 reflex scores, four clusters or typologies have been identified which help to reduce the data for analytic purposes with small numbers of subjects. So far few long-term validation studies have been completed, although the scale is in use in many different areas, such as obstetrical medication, predicting to neurological deficits, cross-cultural differences, and with low birth weight infants.This work was supported by grant # 7634-4 of the Grant Foundation, New York.This material appears in expanded form in Osofsky, J. (ed.),Handbook on Infancy, Wiley Interscience, 1977, in press.