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231.
Rats were trained to escape from shock by pressing a bar. Bar holding was subsequently punished with very brief shocks. This treatment failed to depress bar-holding behavior. In some cases, although the escape shocks were delivered very infrequently, bar holding was maintained and resulted in the delivery of several thousand punishments per session. These and other effects of the punishment treatment were investigated. Finally, some of the possibilities of superstitious escape responding were explored by presenting inescapable shocks to rats that had been trained to escape shock by lever pressing. Although responding during these shocks had no programmed consequences, responding was sustained.  相似文献   
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Thresholds for detecting movement direction were measured for two different types of dynamic dot display; first, one in which all dots moved upwards, and secondly, one in which half the dots moved upwards and half moved downwards. Direction sensitivity was found to be worse for the stimulus containing two simultaneous directions of motion than for the stimulus in one direction. These data are taken as evidence of some form of competition, or AND-NOT gating, between the outputs of direction-specific analysers during threshold determination.  相似文献   
238.
Numerous ethical issues have emerged from the industrialization of animal agriculture. Those issues ultimately rest in large measure upon overuse of antibiotics. How this has occurred is discussed in detail in this paper.  相似文献   
239.
Observational and experimental data have revealed that preschoolers possess some argumentation skills, both in the production and the evaluation of arguments. However, these skills might have been fostered by the particular cultural context of Western middle- and upper-classes families, to which most children studied belong. Some data suggests that children in other cultures possess at least some of these skills, but no experimental data had been gathered in Eastern cultures. These cultures are supposed to frown on argumentation, and might thus be less conducive to the early development of argumentation skills. We test the emergence of argument evaluation skills in Japanese 5-year-olds by presenting them with a choice between endorsing a strong, perceptual argument, and a weak, circular argument. A first experiment revealed a trend in the direction of the strong argument. A second experiment that addresses some methodological concerns of the first demonstrates a significant tendency to follow the strong argument. These results are similar to those previously gathered in two other cultures (Swiss and Maya), and suggest that some basic argumentation skills are early developing across cultures.  相似文献   
240.
As media reports have made widely known, in November 2009, the ethics committee of St. Joseph’s Hospital in Phoenix, Arizona, permitted the abortion of an eleven-week-old fetus in order to save the life of its mother. This woman was suffering from acute pulmonary hypertension, which her doctors judged would prove fatal for both her and her previable child. The ethics committee believed abortion to be permitted in this case under the so-called principle of double effect, but Thomas J. Olmsted, the bishop of Phoenix, disagreed with the committee and pronounced its chair, Sister Margaret McBride, excommunicated latae sententiae, “by the very commission of the act.” In this article, I take the much discussed Phoenix case as an occasion to subject the principle of double effect to another round of philosophical scrutiny. In particular, I examine the third condition of the principle in its textbook formulation, namely, that the evil effect in question may not be the means to the good effect. My argument, in brief, is that the textbook formulation of the principle does not withstand philosophical scrutiny. Nevertheless, in the end, I do not claim that we should then “do away” with the principle altogether. Instead, we do well to understand it within the context of casuistry, the tradition of moral reasoning from which it issued.  相似文献   
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