Non-LIFO Execution of Cognitive Procedures

Many current theories of human problem solving and skill acquisition assume that people work only on the unsatisfied goal that was created most recently. That is, the architecture obeys a last-in-first-out (LIFO) constraint on the selection of goals. This restriction seems necessary for the proper functioning of automatic learning mechanisms, such as production compilation and chunking. It is argued that this restriction is violated by some subjects on some tasks. In particular, 8 subjects (from a sample of 26) execute subtraction procedures in a way that violates the LIFO constraint. Although there is a great deal of between- and within-subject strategy variation in the 8 subjects' behavior, it can be simply explained by hypothesizing that (1) the goal selection is not necessarily LIFO, (2) goal selection knowledge is represented by explicit preferences, and (3) the 8 subjects have just a few preferences that are overgeneralized, overspecialized, or missing. The rest of their preferences are correct. On the other hand, LIFO-based models seem unable to explain the strategy variations in any simple way. Thus, it seems that part of the flexibility in human problem solving comes from having a choice of which goal to work on next. Fortunately, it is simple to ammend automatic learning mechanisms so that they will function correctly in a non-LIFO architecture.     

Increased attention for computer-tailored health communications: an event-related potential study.

The authors tested whether individually tailored health communications receive more attention from the reader than nontailored health communications in a randomized, controlled trial among student volunteers (N = 24). They used objective measures of attention allocation during the message exposure. In a between-subjects design, participants had to read tailored or nontailored nutrition education messages and at the same time had to pay attention to specific odd auditory stimuli in a sequence of frequent auditory stimuli (odd ball paradigm). The amount of attention allocation was measured by recording event-related potentials (ERPs; i.e., N100 and P300 ERPs) and reaction times. For the tailored as opposed to the nontailored group, results revealed larger amplitudes for the N100 effect, smaller amplitudes for the P300 effect, and slower reaction times. Resource allocation theory and these results suggest that those in the tailored group allocated more attention resources to the nutrition message than those in the nontailored group.     

Eye-tracking the cancellation and focus model for preference judgments

By means of a relatively new eye-tracking method that allows for a test situation much closer to reality, we recorded and examined gaze time and fixation number within the cancellation and focus paradigm, a feature-matching model for preference judgments between two alternatives. In line with the cancellation and focus model we found that when subjects encountered the second option in each pair, shared features were canceled out and thus given less consideration whereas unique features were focused on more. We also investigated the role of feature attractiveness as a second important factor in preference judgments and found a U-shaped relationship between attractiveness and visual consideration intensity; that is, attractive and unattractive features received more attention than did those of intermediate attractiveness. Finally, we tested the ability of two models, Franklin’s rule and the WReSt (Weighted Recalled Stepwise Comparing) heuristic, to predict the preference ratings.     

Community Data Collection with Children of Mothers Living with HIV: Boundaries of the Researcher Role

The TRACK‐II program is a multi‐site, community‐based randomized controlled trial evaluating an intervention to assist mothers living with HIV (MLH) in disclosing their HIV status to their young children. Many participants—both mothers and children—reported significant depression and/or suicidal ideation, a phenomenon that presented ethical challenges. This article focuses on participants at one site (Atlanta). Through the vignette of “Jordan,” we describe ethical challenges that may arise when faced with the responsibility of maximizing participants’ safety while maintaining the boundaries of the researcher role. Guided by community psychology values, our team has taken measures within our role as researchers to empower and protect children and mothers endorsing suicidal ideation. For example, we have relied on relationships with community‐based organizations and AIDS service organizations to connect HIV‐affected families to mental health services. Furthermore, we have expanded our system of documentation to follow‐up adequately with families at risk, and we track family resources to promote a strengths‐based framework. We have solicited families’ feedback about their supports and needs to understand how we may best serve them by connecting them to the resources they report needing most and empowering them to care for themselves.     

Matters of Interest: The Objects of Research in Science and Technoscience

This discussion paper proposes that a meaningful distinction between science and technoscience can be found at the level of the objects of research. Both notions intermingle in the attitudes, intentions, programs and projects of researchers and research institutions—that is, on the side of the subjects of research. But the difference between science and technoscience becomes more explicit when research results are presented in particular settings and when the objects of research are exhibited for the specific interest they hold. When an experiment is presented as scientific evidence which confirms or disconfirms a hypothesis, this agrees with traditional conceptions of science. When organic molecules are presented for their capacity to serve individually as electric wires that carry surprisingly large currents, this would be a hallmark of technoscience. Accordingly, we propose research on the ontology of research objects. The focus on the character and significance of research objects makes this a specifically philosophical project.     

Toward More Effective Stakeholder Dialogue: Applying Theories of Negotiation to Policy and Program Evaluation1

Borrowing from the negotiation literature, we tested 2 factors that might improve stakeholder dialogue in program and policy evaluation. Undergraduate stakeholders (61 pairs) engaged in dialogue about their universities' alcohol policies. Pairs were randomly assigned to levels of accountability audience and dialogue structure. The audience for the videotaped dialogue was described as holding either (a) views about the policy similar to the participant's, consistent across audience members (homogeneous), or (b) mixed views, on both sides of the issue (heterogeneous). Pairs approached the dialogue with either (a) problem‐solving goals or (b) no particular strategy. Dyads accountable to a heterogeneous audience and given problem‐solving instructions exhibited the most effective dialogue. Accountability to a heterogeneous audience facilitated satisfaction with and optimism about dialogue. Accountability to homogeneous audiences and adopting no particular strategy yielded the least positive perceptions of dialogue. Implications for stakeholder dialogue, and for the role of social psychology in evaluation are discussed.     

Reducing hoarding behavior with individualized reinforcement and item return

Treatment research on hoarding is generally limited to people without intellectual disabilities who have symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder and respond favorably to cognitive‐based therapies. We evaluated the effects of individualized reinforcement and item return procedures on hoarding behavior in a multiple baseline across three persons with severe mental retardation. Systematic preference assessment procedures identified items used in the individualized reinforcement procedures. Reductions in hoarding behavior occurred for each person when individualized treatment and item return procedures were applied. These reductions were maintained when direct support staff were trained to provide treatment. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Neurodevelopmental model of long-term outcomes of adult survivors of childhood brain tumors

Childhood brain tumors and related treatments disrupt the developing brain and have a cascading impact on core cognitive skills and intellectual (intelligence quotient [IQ]) and academic achievement outcomes. Theoretical models for this cascade have been developed based on the literature, but no studies thus far have empirically evaluated the models. The current study aimed to empirically test the two extant models and generate a new data-driven model of the relationships among neurodevelopmental risk factors, core cognitive skills (i.e., processing speed, attention span, working memory), and IQ and achievement outcomes. Fifty-seven adult survivors of childhood brain tumors and fifty-seven demographically matched neurotypical individuals were included in the current study. The average age at brain tumor diagnosis was 8 years, and the average time since diagnosis was 17 years. Three a priori path models tested the hypothesized relationships among variables. Results of the path analyses revealed that the hybrid model best fit the data for both survivors and controls based on all statistical criteria. For survivors, processing speed was the core cognitive skill most widely associated with neurodevelopmental risk factors and outcomes. However, working memory and attention span also had unique contributions to IQ and academic achievement. Processing speed appears to be the central cognitive skill that disrupts the other core cognitive skills of attention span and working memory, and all three make a unique contribution to IQ and academic achievement. This is best demonstrated by a novel neurodevelopmental model that combines components of two earlier untested theoretical models.     

Monitoring syllable boundaries during speech production

This study investigated the encoding of syllable boundary information during speech production in Dutch. Based on Levelt's model of phonological encoding, we hypothesized segments and syllable boundaries to be encoded in an incremental way. In a self-monitoring experiment, decisions about the syllable affiliation (first or second syllable) of a pre-specified consonant, which was the third phoneme in a word, were required (e.g., ka.No 'canoe' vs. kaN.sel 'pulpit'; capital letters indicate pivotal consonants, dots mark syllable boundaries). First syllable responses were faster than second syllable responses, indicating the incremental nature of segmental encoding and syllabification during speech production planning. The results of the experiment are discussed in the context of Levelt's model of phonological encoding.