Individual differences, intelligence, and behavior analysis

Despite its avowed goal of understanding individual behavior, the field of behavior analysis has largely ignored the determinants of consistent differences in level of performance among individuals. The present article discusses major findings in the study of individual differences in intelligence from the conceptual framework of a functional analysis of behavior. In addition to general intelligence, we discuss three other major aspects of behavior in which individuals differ: speed of processing, working memory, and the learning of three-term contingencies. Despite recent progress in our understanding of the relations among these aspects of behavior, numerous issues remain unresolved. Researchers need to determine which learning tasks predict individual differences in intelligence and which do not, and then identify the specific characteristics of these tasks that make such prediction possible.     

On the immunity of perceptual implicit memory to manipulations of attention

In four experiments, we examined the effect of manipulating study phase attention in a Stroop task on the extent of repetition priming in the lexical decision task (LDT). Experiment 1 replicated the immunity of the LDT to division of attention reported by Szymanski and MacLeod (1996), using a standard Stroop configuration. Response times to previously encountered words were identical regardless of whether the participants were required to read the words or name the color in which they were presented. Experiment 2 demonstrated that implementing the Stroop manipulation across separate visual objects reduced but did not eliminate priming of unattended words, provided the words remained in the attended region of the stimulus display. When this constraint was removed in Experiment 3, priming of unattended words disappeared. Experiment 4 demonstrated statistically equivalent priming for attended and unattended words when the Stroop manipulation remained in the same visual object but attention was directed to a single letter of the word. In all four experiments, the Stroop manipulation had a clear effect on recognition. These results qualify claims that the LDT might be immune to manipulations of study phase attention and suggest that the LDT has a lower threshold level of attention at encoding than do other standard implicit tests of memory.     

Psychoendocrine and physical performance responses in male Tunisian rugby players during an international competitive season

The aim was to investigate a follow-up study based on hormonal, physical, and psychological parameters among rugby players who trained during a whole season interspersed with competitions on an international level. Fitness or reciprocally tiredness as well as competitive anxiety were evaluated, respectively, using the French Society for Sports Medicine (SFMS) and the sport competition anxiety test (SCAT) questionnaires. In this study, SFMS and SCAT scores increased respectively over the competitive season. The SFMS score revealed a state of relative tiredness at the end of the season, highlighted by a slight decrement in physical performances. The SCAT score changes are related to the competition context and therefore increased accordingly to the importance of the competition stake. We analyzed the corticotrope and the gonadotrope axis before (T(1)), and at the end of the national and international rugby season (T(2)). Training did not affect the resting salivary cortisol (Csal) levels, but induced a decrease in resting testosterone (Tsal) values, resulting in a dropped T/C ratio. Competition, in both periods (T(1)-T(2)), provoked a significant increase in Csal levels, but the Tsal responses depended on the match stake. Their concentrations increased when the competition generated an important stress and decreased when the psychological conditions remained relatively stable. SFMS is preferentially correlated with resting Csal levels and T/C values measured at 08:00 hr but not with Tsal. SCAT is highly correlated with competitive Csal and Tsal concentrations measured before and after the matches.     

Is schizotypy taxonic? Response to

Beauchaine, Lenzenweger, and Waller (2008) criticize our taxometric study of schizotypy (Rawlings, Williams, Haslam, & Claridge, in press) on a variety of methodological and philosophical grounds. We argue that their critique selectively applies more stringent standards to our work than to studies supporting their view that schizotypy is taxonic (i.e., categorical). Many of their criticisms apply at least equally to existing studies that offer support for a schizotypy taxon, and these studies are vulnerable to biases favouring taxonic conclusions that were controlled for in our study. Contrary to their criticisms, we did not claim to have disconfirmed previous taxonic findings about schizotypy, and our findings positively support dimensional models of schizotypy rather than merely being null results. Similarly, our findings are not artefacts of the sampling or measurement decisions that they question. Even well-replicated taxometric findings are not immune to empirical challenge, and evaluation of such challenges must be even-handed.     

Recovering data from scanned graphs: Performance of Frantz’s g3data software

Recovering data points from scanned or photocopied graphs by hand is time consuming, prone to error, and it requires patience and a steady hand. An alternative is to use g3data-a program that reads many common image file types and allows accurate estimation of data point coordinates from the graphs contained in these files. Limits of the software are discussed, and validation of its accuracy using graphs with known data values is presented.     

Necessity and Rigidly Designating Kind Terms

Kripke claims that certainkind terms, particularly natural kind terms,are, like names, rigid designators. However,kind terms are more complicated than names aseach is connected both to a principle ofinclusion and an extension. So, there is aquestion regarding what it is that rigidlydesignating kind terms rigidly designate. Inthis paper, I assume that there are rigidlydesignating kind terms and attempt to answerthe question as to what it is that they rigidlydesignate. I then use this analysis of rigidlydesignating kind terms to show how Kripke'sreasoning regarding the necessity of `Hesperusis Phosphorus' can be extended to statementsinvolving kind terms like `Water is H₂O'and `Tigers are mammals'.     

The role of perceived control in overcoming defensive self-evaluation

Two experiments investigated how perceived control over one’s abilities and one’s perceived standing on these abilities affect feedback seeking. Two aspects of perceived control were studied: Experiment 1 focused on perceived control over the expression of one’s ability in performance, whereas Experiment 2 focused on perceived changeability of the ability itself. The results of the two experiments showed that to the extent that participants’ perceived ability was low, both aspects of perceived control increased interest in negative feedback—feedback that diagnoses weaknesses—and decreased interest in positive feedback—feedback that diagnoses strengths. Mediation analyses showed that the effects of perceived ability and perceived control on feedback seeking were mediated by the subjective informational value of the feedback as well as its esteem-related affective value. These results were interpreted as evidence for pragmatic feedback seeking—a process that flexibly integrates immediate emotional value and long-term usefulness of self-relevant information.     

An examination of the relationships among emotion management,interpersonal hassles,and depressive symptomatology

This study extended previous research by testing three models predicting depressive symptoms from emotion management (EM) and interpersonal hassles in a sample with a wide range of depression scores. Adults (n = 218) from sources including a depression internet site completed measures of interpersonal hassles, depression, and three aspects of EM (attention to, clarity of, and repair of emotions). Regression analyses supported a model in which lower clarity and repair scores and greater frequency of interpersonal hassles each contributed directly to depression scores. While lower attention to emotions was associated with fewer interpersonal hassles, it did not correlate significantly with depression scores. Moderation analyses did not support a model of EM components acting on depression by buffering effects of interpersonal hassles. A model of depression and hassles predicting EM difficulties was also considered; when both hassles and depression scores were entered to predict EM, only depressive symptoms uniquely predicted clarity and repair.     

Heightened ruminative disposition is associated with impaired attentional disengagement from negative relative to positive information: support for the “impaired disengagement” hypothesis

Information processing accounts of rumination propose that impaired attentional disengagement from negative information may underpin heightened disposition to experience ruminative brooding in response to negative mood. The present study examined the relationship between individual differences in ruminative disposition and selective attention, using a paradigm capable of distinguishing between biases in the engagement and disengagement of attention. Results showed that higher dispositional ruminative brooding, as measured by both the brooding subscale of the RRS and an in-vivo assessment of ruminative disposition, was associated with greater relative impairment disengaging attention from negative compared to positive stimuli. These findings thus provide support for the “impaired disengagement” account of ruminative brooding.