马克思主义哲学中的物质范畴

人类生活在宇宙之中,这个宇宙不能自发地为人类提供认识它的因素。宇宙是如何产生的又向何处发展人在宇宙中的作用是什么哲学研究的目的,就在于试图为如此众多的疑问寻找答案。肯定任何一种答案,都需要经过验证。唯心主义和唯物主义关于上述问题的答案不但是对立的,而且这种对立仍在不断加深。     

黑格尔论革命权利

新发现的两种讲课笔记证明:黑格尔作为社会哲学家在海德堡和柏林一直都是进步的在1819—1820年冬季学期黑格尔甚至谈论穷人的非常权利。     

计算机和形而上学

什么是形而上学我要使用的方法是起源于古代而今天仍为人们所使用的方法,也就是给出一些实例,再从中抽象得出一般的原理。让我们以罗马诗人卢克莱修的形而上学为例,他借用了古希腊原子论者的观点。卢克莱修认为,基本的实体是由原子和虚空或空间所组成的。原子是坚硬的,小到我们看不见它,它们在空无的空间中运动并且保持不变。     

苏格拉底的反证法简论

我这里所讲的苏格拉底,是柏拉图早期对话中的苏格拉底。依我看来,柏拉图在对话中重建了这个历史人物的哲学方法和哲学学说。这里,我将着重谈谈我认为是苏格拉底从事哲学研究的主要方法,我把它称之为“标准反证法”。这个名称有别于R.鲁滨逊等人的“间接反证法”。他们之所以称它为“间接反证法”,是因为在反证时,驳斥的论点可能被用作对此论点进行反驳的前提。在这里,苏格拉底不受所提出之前提真理性的束缚,而由它推出     

论概念

1.知识分为(a)普遍承认的概念(太阳、月亮、智慧、灵魂)和(b)有待证明的概念(例如确证宇宙是由包含在另一球体中的球面组成的;或者是在时间中被创造的)。每个概念都必定有一个更普遍的概念在它之前存在着。但是,那个概念的最终建立却无需和在它之先的概念相关联。必然的存在和可能的存在就是这样的概念。这样的概念无需人们去构想一个包含着它们的东西,它们本身就是清楚、明白的自明概     

唯心主义和宗教的相似与区别

在阶级社会里,宗教和哲学唯心主义之间的相似和密切联系,是毋庸置疑的。无论是宗教还是哲学唯心主义,都是对世界的一种不正确的看法,都是一种错误的、歪曲的、颠倒的世界观。宗教和哲学唯心主义都反映这些和那些阶级的利益,它们过去和现在多半是阶级社会里的思想斗争中的同盟军。以上这些观点都是下述看法的依据,即在我们的文献里,充分而又广泛地提到宗教和哲学唯心主义是一些不同的现象,但就其本质来说,又是同一     

幼儿不同情绪状态对其智力操作的影响

本实验结果显示:1)在16至18个月的婴儿中,愉快和痛苦情绪对其问题解决的操作有不同的影响。愉快组被试比痛苦组被试的操作效果明显优越;体现在“直接抓取”、“注视”和“顺利获得”三种操作策略中。2)愉快和痛苦两种情绪的不同强度与操作效果之间的相关是不同的。愉快组显示为一种曲线相关,即过高或过低的情绪唤醒不如适中的唤醒水平使操作效果达到最优。痛苦组显示为一种直线相关,即痛苦强度越大,操作效果越差。     

Some effects of interreinforcement time upon choice

Pigeons' responses were reinforced on two identical and concurrently available chain variable-interval-schedules. Unlike the typical concurrent chains procedure, both links were operative throughout, thus producing three types of concurrency: (1) concurrent initial links; (2) concurrent initial and terminal links; (3) concurrent terminal links. Choice proportions in each of these three states suggested that the pigeons were sensitive to momentary likelihoods of reinforcement: choice proportions for a schedule were higher when the schedule had been operative for some time, resulting in a higher probability of reinforcement. The study also showed that the relative rates of responding did not match the relative rates of reinforcement in any of the three states of concurrency. Instead, the choice proportions in both the concurrent initial and in the concurrent terminal links were intermediate between the scheduled and the obtained relative rates of reinforcement, while the choice proportions for a terminal link concurrent with an initial link consistently overmatched the relative interreinforcement times (and were typically 1.00). These data indicate that an accurate characterization of choice may not be obtained by considering only the relative interreinforcement interval where one interreinforcement interval is segmented into a chain. Instead, the organism's choice for a schedule will be substantially lowered by the chaining operation.     

Choice behavior and the accessibility of the reinforcer

In Experiment 1, matching of relative response rates to relative rates of reinforcement was obtained in concurrent variable-interval schedules when the absolute values of the two concurrent variable-interval schedules varied from 6 sec and 12 sec to 600 sec and 1200 sec. Increases in the duration of the changeover delay, however, produced decreases in the relative response rates and, consequently, some deviation from matching. In Experiment 2, matching of relative response rates to the relative duration of the reinforcer failed to occur when the equal variable-interval schedules arranging access to the two different reinforcer durations (1.5 and 6 sec) were varied in size from concurrent variable-interval 10-sec schedules to concurrent variable-interval 600-sec schedules.     

Choice for periodic schedules of reinforcement

Pigeons' responses in the presence of two concurrently available (initial-link) stimuli produced one of two different (terminal-link) stimuli according to identical but independent variable-interval schedules. Responding in the mutually exclusive terminal links was reinforced with food according to fixed-ratio schedules for six pigeons and according to fixed-interval schedules for two pigeons. None of the pigeons matched the proportion of (choice) responses in the initial links to the proportion of the rates of reinforcement obtained during the terminal links. Instead, as the values of each of the terminal-link schedules were increased by a constant amount, the choice proportions for the stimulus associated with the smaller of the two values increased, even though the relative rates of reinforcement during the terminal links decreased. These results are incompatible with those from previous studies with aperiodic (variable-interval or variable-ratio) schedules. The present results do suggest, however, that in transforming aperiodic schedules into their periodic equivalents, it may be necessary to consider the size of the smallest interreinforcement interval comprising the terminal-link schedules.