欧州关于领导问题的研究

欧洲学者对于领导问题始终保持着兴趣。现代的有关研究有别于美国,更注重理论探讨,所考查的因素也更为广泛。英国伦敦塔维斯托克人类关系所的研究将组织看作为“社会-技术”系统,而领导就负责管理系统内各子系统间以及与环境间边界关系的过程。英国阿斯顿大学则认为是组织的整体结构而不是个别管理者的领导行为方式决定了组织的运行。斯图亚特的学说介乎两者之间,它将领导分为必须完成的、自愿完成的任务和限制完成任务的因素三种成分,这样领导既是被决定的,又是可作出选择的。在欧洲对领导问题中参与过程的研究很流行。几项大规模的调查表明参与性决策具有差异性和阶段性,因而海勒-维尔波特提出权变理论。领导问题的研究应朝着能够对在某一具体情景下领导者应如何行动作出预测的方向进行。     

影响学习的动机过程

动机过程影响儿童对知识和技能的获得、迁移和使用,但与教育有关的动机概念仍难以捉摸。美国伊利诺斯大学心理学家C.S.Dweck利用社会-认知框架中的最新研究,描述了适应和适应不良动机模式,提出了一个以研究为基础的动机过程模型。这个模型表明儿童在认知任务中所追求的特定目标如何决定他们对成功和失败的反应、如何影响他们认知操作的质量。Dweck认为这种探索对改变适应不良动机过程的干预的设计和实践有重大意义。她根据这个模型解释了动机对数学成绩的性别差异的影响,她观察到以经验为基础的干预可以防止当前的这种成绩差异。     

苏联飞行员的心理选拔

苏联飞行员心理选拔工作,是从国内战争和外国武装干涉结束后开始的。红军领导人M.B.伏龙芝非常注意这个问题,他指出:“如果我们……把身体素质、心理方面不适于担任部队服务的人员编入空军,那么,实际上我们就很难使用这支战斗力量……这对于空军特别重要。空军对每一名飞行员都有一系列品质方面的要求,而这些品质并非所有的人都具备的。”     

艺术心理学的某些问题

艺术心理学的问题属于那些使心理学和美学彼此交叉的和二者相互联系的问题。这些问题很难解决,并且研究得很少。这两种科学之中究竟是哪一种首先对这些交叉问题的现状负责呢?研究这些问题中的主要作用究竟属于哪一种科学——属于心理学还是属于美学呢?那些纯方法论的见解要求承认,这种主要作用属于心理学。诚然,在心理学     

社会心理学论流行

一、什么是流行在我们的社会里,差不多在每个时期,都有时髦的服装、歌曲、体育、语言等等。所谓流行现象就是某种事物由于被人们采用而逐渐推广,生根以至消灭的一个过程。而这些事物能否成为流行现象,则取决于它能否满足下述的两个方面的条件:即流行项目的特点和它的普及现象。1.流行的特点所谓流行现象是从我们身上穿的衣服、装饰、化装、直至音乐、绘画、文学、科学、思想(把这些称作流行项目)为止,在生活的一切领域都能看到的,而且它们都是在某种意义上给予人们的所谓“新奇”“珍贵”的印象。这就是说,作为流行的     

少年对体育活动态度的心理特点

一般说来,体育活动是和发展一定的身体素质相联系的。它要求少年保持自己的体育锻炼,并普遍提高身体训练的水平。同时,体育活动还能发展一些最重要的个性心理品质,其中不仅有耐力、力量、速度和动作的灵活性、意志、勇敢、果断、顽强,而且还有创造性、集体主义、坚定的目的性。正因为如此,体育活动在少年期具有特别重要的作用和意义。需要把它作为方向性的建设来抓。     

给智力重新下定义

日本东京有一个特别的音乐教学大纲,规定儿童在6岁时用小提琴演奏维瓦尔第协奏曲,在10岁时演奏莫扎特作品,这时他们都还不知怎样读谱呢。在密克罗内西亚的加罗林群岛,一位帕罗威族小男孩,深夜解缆出海,应用他了解的关于波浪、风向和星星的知识,仅靠头脑中的地图进行观察,就可到达几百个小岛中的任何一个岛上。在波士顿,一个正在矫正阅读障碍的少年,竟编制了利用报上公布     

Some effects of interreinforcement time upon choice

Pigeons' responses were reinforced on two identical and concurrently available chain variable-interval-schedules. Unlike the typical concurrent chains procedure, both links were operative throughout, thus producing three types of concurrency: (1) concurrent initial links; (2) concurrent initial and terminal links; (3) concurrent terminal links. Choice proportions in each of these three states suggested that the pigeons were sensitive to momentary likelihoods of reinforcement: choice proportions for a schedule were higher when the schedule had been operative for some time, resulting in a higher probability of reinforcement. The study also showed that the relative rates of responding did not match the relative rates of reinforcement in any of the three states of concurrency. Instead, the choice proportions in both the concurrent initial and in the concurrent terminal links were intermediate between the scheduled and the obtained relative rates of reinforcement, while the choice proportions for a terminal link concurrent with an initial link consistently overmatched the relative interreinforcement times (and were typically 1.00). These data indicate that an accurate characterization of choice may not be obtained by considering only the relative interreinforcement interval where one interreinforcement interval is segmented into a chain. Instead, the organism's choice for a schedule will be substantially lowered by the chaining operation.     

Choice for periodic schedules of reinforcement

Pigeons' responses in the presence of two concurrently available (initial-link) stimuli produced one of two different (terminal-link) stimuli according to identical but independent variable-interval schedules. Responding in the mutually exclusive terminal links was reinforced with food according to fixed-ratio schedules for six pigeons and according to fixed-interval schedules for two pigeons. None of the pigeons matched the proportion of (choice) responses in the initial links to the proportion of the rates of reinforcement obtained during the terminal links. Instead, as the values of each of the terminal-link schedules were increased by a constant amount, the choice proportions for the stimulus associated with the smaller of the two values increased, even though the relative rates of reinforcement during the terminal links decreased. These results are incompatible with those from previous studies with aperiodic (variable-interval or variable-ratio) schedules. The present results do suggest, however, that in transforming aperiodic schedules into their periodic equivalents, it may be necessary to consider the size of the smallest interreinforcement interval comprising the terminal-link schedules.