Attention and its coupling to action

We discuss two commentaries that we have received on our target article (Humphreys et al., 2010). We elaborate on the evidence for action effects on extinction and discuss whether these effects occur pre or post the selection of a response. In addition, we discuss the neural basis of the effects of action relations on extinction and on the generalization of results on action relations to real‐world examples.     

Tailoring the crack-tip microstructure: a novel approach

This investigation demonstrates a way to innovatively modify the ferritic microstructure at a local scale, particularly at the failure prone area such as Charpy V-notch (CVN) root. Tensile pre-strain (PS) up to 6% and 12% were employed before annealing (An) the samples at 650°C for 15?minutes. Ferrite grain size increased sharply and gradually (along the distance ahead of the notch root) within the microstructurally modified region in 6–12% pre-strained and annealed samples, respectively. The critical strain which promotes strain-induced boundary migration (SIBM), was found to be 0.1 which resulted in abnormally coarse ferrite grains.     

The Influence of Hero and Villain Labels on the Perception of Vice and Virtue Products

The placement of heroes and villains is ubiquitous on labels and packages in the marketplace. In this research, we examine the influence of a hero versus a villain label on the preference for virtue versus vice products. Across seven laboratory and field studies, we find that consumers derive higher utility for a hero (villain) label with a vice (virtue) food than from a hero (villain) label with a virtue (vice) food. Relying on a coherence‐based explanation, we propose that a hero label adds a beneficial aspect to vice foods, making them appear less harmful, whereas a villain label adds an edgy aspect to virtue foods, making them appear more fun. This research provides insights into the effect of hero and villain branding and offers implications for marketing strategy and public policy.     

Empirical Vindication of Moral Luck

In resultant moral luck, blame and punishment seem intuitively to depend on downstream effects of a person’s action that are beyond his or her control. Some skeptics argue that we should override our intuitions about moral luck and reform our practices. Other skeptics attempt to explain away apparent cases of moral luck as epistemic artifacts. I argue, to the contrary, that moral luck is real—that people are genuinely responsible for some things beyond their control. A partially consequentialist theory of responsibility justifies moral luck. But this justification is no mere rationalization of the status quo. Recent experimental and evolutionary work on punishment and learning suggests that the very same reasons that justify moral luck have also shaped the evolution of our luck‐sensitive moral practices.     

The response-signal method reveals age-related changes in object working memory

Sixteen healthy young adults (ages 18-32) and 16 healthy older adults (ages 67-81) completed a delayed response task in which they saw the following visual sequence: memory stimuli (2 abstract shapes; 3,000 ms), a blank delay (5,000 ms), a probe stimulus of variable duration (one abstract shape; 125, 250, 500, 1,000, or 2,000 ms), and a mask (500 ms). Subjects decided whether the probe stimulus matched either of the memory stimuli; they were instructed to respond during the mask, placing greater emphasis on speed than accuracy. The authors used D. L. Hintzman & T. Curran's (1994) 3-parameter compound bounded exponential model of speed-accuracy tradeoff to describe changes in discriminability associated with total processing time. Group-level analysis revealed a higher rate parameter and a higher asymptote parameter for the young adult group, but no difference across groups in x-intercept. Proxy measures of cognitive reserve (Y. Stern et al., 2005) predicted the rate parameter value, particularly in older adults. Results suggest that in working memory, aging impairs both the maximum capacity for discriminability and the rate of information accumulation, but not the temporal threshold for discriminability.     

Ecology,language, and performance on spatial cognitive tasks

The study of the orientation systems that people use in different cultures to describe the location of objects in space has drawn some interest of researchers in the fields of anthropology, psycholinguistics, and cognitive psychology. There has been a rethinking of the “linguistic relativity hypothesis,” and some empirical studies tend to support the notion that language is the major determinant of encoding and cognitive performance on spatial tasks. This paper reports a cross‐cultural study carried out with 545 children aged 4 to 14 years, both schooled and unschooled, in India and Nepal. The field sites were selected taking into consideration how reference to spatial locations is organized in the language as well as in the local cultural practices. In a village near Varanansi in India, people organize spatial locations mainly with reference to cardinal directions, but in the city of Varanasi, relative references are also used, although people in both the locations speak the same language (i.e., Hindi). In a village in Nepal, on the other hand, the “uphill‐downhill” geocentric frame of reference is the most compelling. We test the relationship between ecology, culture, and language, encoding of spatial information, and performance on some Piagetian spatial tasks, taking age and schooling into account. Berry's eco‐cultural model is used to discuss the findings that support linguistic relativism at the group but not at the individual level. Les systèmes d'orientation spatiale utilisés dans différentes sociétés pour décrire la localisation d'objets ont attiré L'attention de chercheurs en anthropologie, en psycholinguistique et en psychologie cognitive. L'hypothèse du relativisme linguistique a été remise à L'ordre du jour et des études empiriques ont montré que la langue était un déterminant majeur de L'encodage spatial et de la performance à des épreuves de cognition spatiale. Cet article porte sur une étude interculturelle comparative effectuée avec 545 enfants de 4 à 14 ans, scolarisés ou non, en Inde et au Népal. Les trois terrains ont été sélectionnés en tenant compte de la façon dont les références spatiales sont organisées aussi bien dans la langue que dans les pratiques culturelles locales. Dans un village près de Bénares, en Inde, les objets sont localisés selon les points cardinaux, alors que dans la ville de Bénares, des références relatives (droite, gauche, devant, derrière) sont également utilisées, alors que la langue parlée est la même (le Hindi). Dans un village au Népal, le système spatial le plus utilisé est un cadre de référence géocentrique formé par L'opposition «en haut vers la montagne/en bas vers la vallée». Nous étudions les relations entre L'écologie, la culture et la langue, L'encodage d'informations spatiales et la performance à des épreuves spatiales dérivées de la théorie de Piaget, en tenant compte de L'âge et de la scolarisation. Le modèle éco‐culturel de Berry est utilisé comme cadre théorique pour mettre en perspective les résultats, qui confirment le relativisme linguistique au niveau du groupe mais pas au niveau individuel. El estudio de los sistemas de orientación espacial utilizados en diversas culturas para describir la localización de los objetos ha atraído la atención de los investigadores en antropología, psicolingüística y psicología cognitiva. A partir de una renovación de la hipótesis del relativismo lingüístico, algunos estudios empíricos parecen apoyar la noción de que el lenguaje es el determinante más importante de la codificación y el desempeño cognitivo en tareas espaciales. El presente artículo informa sobre un estudio transcultural comparativo, efectuado con 545 niños de 4 a 14 años, escolarizados o no, urbanos y rurales, en India y en Nepal. Los sitios en donde se llevó a cabo el trabajo de campo se seleccionaron tomando en cuenta la forma en que se hace referencia a localizaciones espaciales en la lengua y en las prácticas culturales. En un pueblo de las planicies del Ganges, los habitantes organizan el espacio de manera geocéntrica, según los puntos cardinales, mientras que en la ciudad de Benares, también se utilizan referencias relativas (izquierda/derecha), aún cuando la lengua es la misma (el hindú). En un pueblo de Nepal, el cuadro de referencia geocéntrica “arriba/abajo” es predominante. El presente estudio examinó las relaciones entre la ecología, la cultura, la lengua, la codificación de la información espacial y el desempeño en algunas tareas espaciales de Piaget, teniendo en cuenta la edad y la escolarización. Este estudio está basado en el marco teórico eco‐cultural de Berry. Los resultados confirman una forma moderada de relativismo lingüístico a nivel grupal, más no así a nivel individual.     

Is Consequential Luck Morally Inconsequential? Empirical Psychology and the Reassessment of Moral Luck

Philosophical discussions of the phenomenon that has come to be known as ‘moral luck’ have either dismissed it as illusory or touted it as the evidence for doubting the probative value of our commitment to certain widely avowed views concerning interpersonal assessments of responsibility. In this discussion, we present a third, distinctive interpretation of the moral luck phenomenon. Drawing upon empirically robust results from psychological studies of judgment bias, we argue that the phenomenon of moral luck is demonstrably not illusory. What we suggest, however, is that the phenomenon ought not to be taken to countenance doubts about the standards generally taken to be regulative of assessments of interpersonal responsibility. Rather, its significance lies in foregrounding certain generally unacknowledged obstacles we face in the process of conclusively applying general valid moral standards in making specific judgments of responsibility and desert.¹     

On Measuring Forgiveness: Implications from Smallest Space Analysis of the Forgiveness Likelihood Scale

The structure of the Rye et al.’s Forgiveness Likelihood Scale was evaluated using the principal components analysis and Guttman’s Smallest Space Analysis. Participants (n = 98) were students in Introduction to Psychology classes. While the former suggested a one-factor solution, the latter suggested differentiating the items based on the facet of ease of forgiving with three subsets: easy, medium, and difficult items. Unexpectedly, the Total Forgiveness Likelihood Scale score and the subscale based on just difficult items correlated significantly with the Fantasy subscale of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. A mapping sentence is offered with four facets and their putative constituent elements as a way to conceptualize the development of new, or to improve upon current, forgiveness likelihood scales.     

Gender Differences in Gratitude: Examining Appraisals, Narratives, the Willingness to Express Emotions, and Changes in Psychological Needs

ABSTRACT Previous work suggests women might possess an advantage over men in experiencing and benefiting from gratitude. We examined whether women perceive and react to gratitude differently than men. In Study 1 , women, compared with men, evaluated gratitude expression to be less complex, uncertain, conflicting, and more interesting and exciting. In Study 2 , college students and older adults described and evaluated a recent episode when they received a gift. Women, compared with men, reported less burden and obligation and greater gratitude. Upon gift receipt, older men reported the least positive affect when their benefactors were men. In Studies 2 and 3, women endorsed higher trait gratitude compared with men. In Study 3, over 3 months, women with greater gratitude were more likely to satisfy needs to belong and feel autonomous; gratitude had the opposite effect in men. The willingness to openly express emotions partially mediated gender differences, and effects could not be attributed to global trait affect. Results demonstrated that men were less likely to feel and express gratitude, made more critical evaluations of gratitude, and derived fewer benefits. Implications for the study and therapeutic enhancement of gratitude are discussed.