3-D processing in the Poggendorff illusion

In the Poggendorff illusion two collinear oblique lines, separated by two vertical lines, appear to be misaligned. 3-D processing of the oblique but not the vertical lines is considered to cause this apparent misalignment. We investigated whether more explicitly triggering 2-D versus 3-D interpretations of the different parts of Poggendorff-like displays would influence the apparent misalignment. In Experiment 1, we found that compared to 2-D controls, 3-D interpretations of the vertical parts did not influence apparent misalignment, while for the oblique parts 3-D processing resulted in more apparent misalignment than 2-D controls. In Experiment 2, the amount of contour convergence of the oblique parts was manipulated resulting in the 3-D blocks, but not the 2-D line patterns, to be perceived as receding in depth. Now, apparent misalignment increased the more the 3-D blocks were perceived as receding in depth. We conclude that apparent misalignment in Poggendorff-like displays can be influenced by different interpretations of its separate parts, while keeping the local junctions between the different elements the same.     

Does it only depend on the point of view? Perspective-related differences in justice evaluations of negative incidents in personal relationships

A series of four studies investigated systematic differences between actor and recipient interpretations and justice evaluations of negative incidents in interpersonal relationships. Due to a refined methodology, each negative incident was assessed both by the respective recipient and actor, and each participant reported incidents from both perspectives. The studies provided clear evidence of systematic recipient-actor differences and showed that the quality of the relationship between the parties involved in the incidents can moderate the occurrence and shape of the differences. Significant gender differences were found showing that women respond more accusingly than men in the role of the recipient and more defensively than men in the role of the actor. Copyright © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Association between Self-Regulation and Symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder in Preschoolers with Externalizing Behavior Problems

The purpose of the current study was to examine the role of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in predicting deficits in self-regulation across the domains of executive functioning and emotion regulation. Parents of 40 preschoolers with externalizing behavior problems reported on children’s ADHD and ASD symptoms, and emotion regulation. Children completed a standardized executive functioning battery. Results indicated that 28% of parents and 53% of teachers rated children above the subclinical range on ASD symptoms. An interaction emerged such that higher ASD symptoms were only associated with poorer executive functioning for children with lower ADHD symptoms. However, ASD symptoms were predictive of poorer emotion regulation independent of ADHD symptoms. Findings revealed clinically significant ASD symptoms, which aided in explaining heterogeneity in self-regulation deficits.     

Semantic processing without conscious identification: evidence from event-related potentials

Three event-related potential (ERP) experiments examined whether semantic content can be accessed from visually presented words that cannot be consciously identified. Category labels were shown to participants, followed by masked, briefly exposed words that were either exemplars of the category or not exemplars. The task was to verify the category, by guessing if necessary, and to identify the word, naming it if possible. Exposure durations were selected to allow identification in approximately half the trials. For identified words, there was a marked difference in the ERP response between in-category and out-of-category words because of an N400 component. For unidentified words, there was a similar although smaller difference. Conscious identification was defined using a variety of approaches: verbal report, 6-alternative forced choice, and binary categorization (in the context of the regression method; A. G. Greenwald, M. R. Klinger, & E. S. Schuh, 1995). By any definition, ERPs for unidentified words showed evidence of semantic processing. In addition, there were differences in the neuronal populations recruited to process above-threshold versus below-threshold words, suggesting qualitative differences.     

Reducing off-task behavior in the classroom: A comparison of encouragement and reprimands

Teachers report using both reprimands and encouragement as strategies to reduce offtask behavior in the classroom. Although numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of reprimands, none has examined the efficacy of encouragement. In order to answer this question, two experiments were performed. Subjects were 16 children with academic and/or behavioral problems who were assigned to one of two classes in a remedial summer program. Experiment I employed a reversal design in each class to compare either reprimands or encouragement with No-Feedback conditions. Reprimands proved superior to No Feedback in reducing offtask behavior, but Encouragement did not. In Experiment II Reprimands and Encouragement were directly compared to one another, with each class exposed to both conditions. Reprimands resulted in lower rates of offtask behavior and higher academic productivity than Encouragement.The authors wish to acknowledge M. William Futtersak, for training the observers and aiding in the research; Ann Hession, for an outstanding job teaching; and Linda Pfiffner, for her substantive and editorial feedback.     

Sport competition anxiety and sex role

Competitive trait anxiety scores, measured by the Sport Competition Anxiety Test, were obtained from subjects of both sexes. Subjects also were classified into one of five sex-role endorsement categories according to scores on the Bem Sex Role Inventory. It was predicted that greater endorsement of a feminine sex role, regardless of sex of the subject, would be associated with high levels of competitive trait anxiety. Analysis of variance showed no significant difference for sex of subject, but significant differences for both sex-role endorsement and sex × endorsement interaction. Both differences were attributed to male subjects' responses. Generally, masculine males were less anxious than other subjects, while feminine males were more anxious. There were no significant differences among female groups.The author expresses thanks to Elizabeth Y. Poland and Robert E. Hill, Jr., for their numerous helpful comments during the preparation of this article.     

Alone at the playground

Starting pre-school is a major stepping stone for children’s peer relations. Yet, some children spend their recess time alone, albeit in the presence of playful peers. These solitary behaviours have been noted in the literature as an alarm signal for a maladaptive social development. In this study, we identified four kinds of non-social behaviours engaged at recess (reticent, solitary-pretend, -functional, and -passive); and we examined the extent to which these different behaviours were related to social solitude at the playground six months later. Therefore, 97 children (aged 4–6 years old) were observed at the playground and their social-emotional skills were tested. Solitude was assessed through an innovative measuring method, based on Radio Frequency Identification Devices. The results demonstrated that solitary-pretend play in girls was related to an increase in solitary behaviours later on. Nevertheless, children who engaged in non-social behaviours showed a general lack of emotional skills, which may explain their initial withdrawal.