Response grouping in the psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm: models and contamination effects

Response grouping is a ubiquitous phenomenon in psychological refractory period (PRP) tasks, yet it hampers the analysis of dual-task performance. To account for response grouping, we developed several extended versions of the standard bottleneck model, each of which incorporates a possible grouping mechanism into this model. Computer simulations were used to assess how the predictions of the standard model would change with each grouping mechanism. One set of simulations investigated the basic effects of grouping on the means and intercorrelation of the reaction times in the two tasks, as well as the percentage of trials with short interresponse times (IRTs). A second set of simulations examined whether response grouping would invalidate the use of PRP paradigms for localizing experimental effects. Finally, we investigated whether the post-hoc elimination of trials with short IRTs removes the contaminating effects of response grouping.     

Precuing benefits for color and location in a visual search task

Selection in multiple-item displays has been shown to benefit immensely from advance knowledge of target location (e.g., Henderson, 1991), leading to the suggestion that location is completely dominant in visual selective attention (e.g., Tsal & Lavie, 1993). Recently, direct selection by color has been reported in displays in which location does not vary (Vierck & Miller, 2005). The present experiment investigated the possibility of independent selection by color in a task with multiple-item displays and location precues in order to see whether color is also used for selection even when target location does vary and supposedly dominant location precues can be used. Precues provided independent information about the location and color of a target, and each type of precue could be either valid or invalid. The precues were followed by brief displays of six letters in six different colors, and participants had to discriminate the case of a prespecified target letter (e.g., R vs. r). Performance was much better when location cues were valid than when they were invalid, confirming the large advantage associated with valid advance location information. Performance was also better with valid advance color information, however, both when location cues were valid and when they were invalid. But these color benefits were dependent on the closeness of the colored letter to the cued location. Our results thus suggest that selection by color in a multiple-item display, where location and color information are independent from each other and equalized, is mediated by location information.     

Defining autism: professional best practices and published case law

There are clear indications that both the reported incidence of autism in children and litigation involving this developmental disorder are increasing. However, to date there has been a dearth of research analyzing court cases and legal decisions concerning students with autism. The purpose of this review was to examine published hearing/review and court decisions concerning autism eligibility in educational settings in relation to empirically supported best practices in the assessment of autism. A total of 13 cases were identified for inclusion in the review. In general, the results indicated that hearing/review officers and judges neither relied upon nor explicitly acknowledged empirically supported assessment methods in their published eligibility decisions. It appeared that many hearing/review officers and judges relied on expert witnesses, who may or may not have had particular expertise and knowledge regarding current best practices in autism eligibility assessment. Implications of the findings and areas for future research are discussed.     

Actual–Consequence Act Utilitarianism and the Best Possible Humans

After critiquing some earlier attempts (including those of Marcus Singer and Frances Howard–Snyder) to ground objections to actual–consequence act utilitarianism (ACAU) on human cognitive limitations, I present two new objections with this same foundation. Both start with the observation that, because human cognitive abilities are not up to the task of reliably recognizing utility–maximizing actions, any agents who are recognizably human – including the best possible humans, morally speaking – are certain to perform many actions every day that ACAU says are immoral, and to perform some actions over the course of their lives that it says are highly immoral. The first objection is that, if Mill's analysis of what it means to call an action wrong is accurate, then ACAU entails a conclusion that no one will accept, viz., that the morally–best humans possible ought to undergo constant punishment. The second objection is that ACAU entails that even the morally–best humans possible are bad moral agents in some respect. This conclusion, while unpalatable, is not so obviously unacceptable as the first. However, I do briefly consider some ways in which it might be possible to demonstrate that it is false and thereby complete a reductio of ACAU.     

Critical ingredients of career choice interventions: More analyses and new hypotheses

Recent meta-analyses of the career choice intervention literature (Brown & Ryan Krane, 2000; Ryan, 1999) identified five intervention ingredients that were individually associated with career choice outcome, and collectively were linearly related to increases in career choice effect sizes. In this article, we summarize these meta-analytic findings, present analyses that further confirm these ingredients’ importance, and present some hypotheses to define each of the critical ingredients and suggest how they might be implemented to maximize their effectiveness.     

Predicting Positive Academic Intention Among African American Males and Females1

Significant attention has been given to the educational shortcomings of African American students. This study examined predictors of educational success among African American high school sophomores. It explored factors that predict differences in students’ academic intention to complete the school year, and how these factors differ by gender. The study was guided conceptually by the theory of planned behavior (TPB). We also assessed perceptions of self. Results indicated that most students had positive predispositions toward school‐year completion, with females being more positively oriented toward academic success than males. The TPB's attitude component was the only predictor tested to operate differentially across gender. Having a positive attitude toward school was a significantly greater predictor of intention to complete the school year for males than for females.     

Effects of Friendship Circles on the Social Interactions of Elementary Age Students with Mild Disabilities

This study assessed the effects of Friendship Circles on the social interactions between students with mild disabilities and their nondisabled peers. A multiple probe design was used to analyze the social interactions during lunch. Data also were collected in the form of sociograms and anecdotal records. In addition, generalization was assessed during recess observations. Results indicated that the Friendship Circle intervention produced increases in appropriate interactions at lunch for all three students and for two there were increases in friendly play at recess. Anecdotal data suggested improved social interactions for two of the students throughout the day and improved social behaviors in the general education classroom such as cooperation during group activities. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Maternal Antisocial Behavior, Parenting Practices, and Behavior Problems in Boys at Risk for Antisocial Behavior

We investigated the independent contributions of maternal history of antisocial behavior and parenting practices to the worsening course of sons' behavior problems in a sample of young urban boys at risk for antisocial behavior. Mothers reported on boys' behavior problems at baseline and one year later, as well as on their own history of antisocial behavior before and after age 15, and of lifetime depression and substance use disorders (provisional DSM-III-R diagnoses). Baseline reports of parenting practices were obtained. Lower involvement, lower monitoring, and higher levels of parent–child conflict and maternal Conduct Disorder (CD) before age 15 contributed to the worsening of boys' behavior problems one year later; mothers' symptoms of Antisocial Personality Disorder after age 15 did not. Mothers' lifetime history of Major Depression and Substance Use Disorder did not add to the worsening of boys' behavior problems after accounting for these other factors. Although maternal CD contributed directly to the worsening of boys' behavior problems, the effect of parenting was more substantial. We discuss clinical implications for prevention and treatment of children's antisocial behavior, and intergenerational implications of girls' early antisocial behavior.