Statistical learning in typically developing children: the role of age and speed of stimulus presentation

It is possible that statistical learning (SL) plays a role in almost every mental activity. Indeed, research on SL has grown rapidly over recent decades in an effort to better understand perception and cognition. Yet, there remain gaps in our understanding of how SL operates, in particular with regard to its (im)mutability. Here, we investigated whether participant-related variables (such as age) and task-related variables (such as speed of stimulus presentation) affect visual statistical learning (VSL) in typically developing children. We tested 183 participants ranging in age from 5 to 12 years and compared three speeds of presentation (using stimulus durations of 800, 400 and 200 msecs). A multiple regression analysis revealed significant effects of both age and speed of presentation - after attention during familiarization and gender had been taken into consideration. VSL followed a developmental trajectory whereby learning increased with age. The amount of learning increased with longer presentation times (as shown by Turk-Browne, Jungé & Scholl, 2005, in their study of adults). There was no significant interaction between the two variables. These findings assist in elucidating the nature of statistical learning itself. While statistical learning can be observed in very young children and at remarkably fast presentation times, participant- and task-related variables do impact upon this type of learning. The findings reported here may serve to enhance our understanding of individual differences in the cognitive and perceptual processes that are thought to rely, at least in part, on SL (e.g. language processing and object recognition).     

Changes in need satisfaction and motivation orientation as predictors of psychological and behavioural outcomes in exercise referral

Employing Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) as a theoretical framework, this study examined psychological need satisfaction and motivational regulations as predictors of psychological and behavioural outcomes in exercise referral (ER). ER patients (N?=?293; mean age 54.49) completed the measures of motivational regulations, psychological need satisfaction, health-related quality of life, life satisfaction, anxiety, depression and physical activity at entry, exit and 6 months following the end of a supervised exercise programme. Change in (Δ) intrinsic motivation during the scheme significantly predicted adherence and Δ habitual physical activity. Δ psychological need satisfaction from entry to exit significantly predicted Δ habitual physical activity from exit to 6-month follow-up. Δ psychological need satisfaction significantly predicted Δ motivational regulation and Δ psychological outcomes. Contrary to expectations, Δ self-determined regulation did not significantly predict Δ psychological outcomes during the structured part of the scheme, however, it did significantly predict Δ in psychological outcomes from exit to 6-month follow-up. These findings expand on cross-sectional research to demonstrate that psychological need satisfaction during supervised ER longitudinally predicts motivational regulation and psychological outcomes up to 6 months after a structured programme.     

The input to verb learning in Mandarin Chinese: a role for syntactic bootstrapping

The authors investigated the role of syntax in verb learning in Mandarin Chinese, which allows pervasive ellipsis of noun arguments. Two questions were investigated using the Beijing corpus on CHILDES: (a) Does the input to young children manifest syntactic-semantic correspondences as needed for acquiring verb meanings? (b) Are verbs presented in multiple frames? Over 6,000 child-directed utterances were parsed. Analyses revealed that transitive verbs, motion verbs, and internal/communication verbs were distinguished syntactically; moreover, the 60 target verbs were used in multiple sentence frames. These findings support a role for syntactic bootstrapping in Mandarin verb learning.     

Childhood abuse and neglect and cognitive flexibility in adolescents

Childhood maltreatment (CM) has been associated with diminished executive functioning in children and adults; however, there is a relative paucity of study of executive function in adolescents exposed to CM. Yet, executive dysfunction in adolescence may have important adverse consequences including increased vulnerability to risky behaviors and impaired school functioning. This study investigates the relationship between self-reported CM and an executive function, cognitive flexibility, in adolescents without identified psychiatric disorders. Effects of physical and emotional, abuse and neglect, maltreatment subtypes were explored. Thirty adolescents ages 12-17 years, 50% females, completed the retrospective self-report Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and were administered the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Correlational analyses assessed the relationship between WCST perseverative error scores norm-referenced for age and education with CTQ total scores. The relationship with nonperseverative errors, as well as with physical and emotional abuse and neglect CM subscores, were explored. Total CTQ scores showed significant associations with perseverative errors on the WCST, but not with nonperseverative errors. Significant associations with perseverative errors were seen for physical abuse and physical neglect among the CTQ subscales. The results suggest both physical abuse and physical neglect are associated with diminished cognitive flexibility in adolescents. These effects were detected in adolescents without identified psychiatric diagnoses suggesting the importance of considering executive dysfunction in adolescents exposed to CM who may not meet diagnostic criteria for an Axis I disorder and that tests of perseverative errors, such as those of the WCST, may be sensitive indicators of this dysfunction.     

Self-determination: a buffer against suicide ideation

Self-determination was examined as a protective factor against the detrimental impact of negative life events on suicide ideation in adolescents. It is postulated that for highly self-determined adolescents, negative life events have a weaker impact on both hopelessness and suicide ideation than for non-self-determined adolescents. In turn, hopelessness is hypothesized to generate less suicide ideation for highly self-determined individuals. Results from multigroup analyses confirm that both the direct and indirect links between negative life events and suicide ideation were significantly weaker among participants high in self-determination. The protective role of self-determination against negative life events is discussed.     

Is there a sex difference in lateralization for processing of humorous materials?

Leventhal and Cupchik (1976) reported an unpublished finding that women rate items funnier with left-ear input, while men give higher ratings with right-ear input. This finding, widely cited in the literature, has sometimes been quoted as evidence for a biological basis for sex differences in humor appreciation, in particular, and in information processing, in general. However, the effect has apparently never been replicated. In this study, 120 subjects rated the funniness of 35 monaurally-presented comedy excerpts, with half of the subjects receiving input over each ear. Although the experiment had several features intended to maximize replicability, the reported sex difference was not found. While failure to find an effect in a particular case is not definitive, it is troubling to see such widespread citation of an unpublished and apparently unreplicated effect and to see rather extreme conclusions based on it receive serious consideration in the literature.This research was supported by a University College of Cape Breton research grant and by a job internship grant awarded by Enterprise Cape Breton Corporation. I am very grateful to Wayne Baillie, Manager, UCCB Electronic Learning Center, for his assistance in conducting this experiment. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Psychological Association, Ottawa, June, 1990.     

Stability and change in types of behavioral disturbance of children and adolescents

Changes with aging and stability of dimensions of behavioral disturbance were determined for 732 children and adolescents who constituted the sample reassessed after 5 years of an original cross-sectional sample of Manhattan youth 6 to 18 years old. On three of the six types of disturbance strongly related to the total impairment judgments of psychiatrists, specifically those tapping domains of aggression, greater or constant levels of pathology were noted over time. Cross-sectional versus longitudinal analyses on the same types of disturbance had discrepant results half the time. Stability coefficients for five of the six types of disturbance were greater than .55. Stability curves by age cohorts investigated whether a type of disturbance appeared transitory at certain age periods but more crystallized at other ages. Its prognostic significance would vary accordingly. Implications for intervention-treatment and for studies comparing the predictive value of different classes of behavior, e.g., neurotic versus antisocial, are discussed.This investigation was supported by U. S. Public Health Service Project Grants MH-11545 and MH-18260 of the National Institute of Mental Health, Center for Epidemiological Studies. Support for the principal investigator was given by Career Scientist Grants I-338 and I-640 of the Health Research Council of the City of New York. The principal investigator is currently supported through Research Scientist Award K5-MH-20868 of the National Institute of Mental Health.This research was presented in part at the Eastern Psychological Association Meetings, April 3–5, 1975, New York City.     

Masculinity-femininity of self-concept: Its effect on the achievement behavior of women

The achievement behavior of women was examined in relation to their masculinity-femininity of self-concept and the mediating effects of the situation. The masculinity-femininity of self-concept of 58 female subjects was determined through the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (J. Spence, R. Helmreich, and J. Stapp, The Personal Attributes Questionnaire: A Measure of Sex Role Stereotypes and Masculinity-Femininity, Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 1974, 4, 43–44). These subjects then competed in either a mixed-sex or same-sex group. Each subject was led to believe she was a high-ability performer in relation to the group members she competed against. While feminine women did not display poorer performance when competing against lower ability males than lower ability females, they did feel more ambivalence than the others about performing successfully in a competitive situation.The author gratefully acknowledges the contributions and support of Dr. M. L. Dietz, Dr. W. Libby, Dr. L. M. Jackson, and Dr. F. Schneider.