The utility of the spatial span in a clinical geriatric population

Spatial Span subtest of the Wechsler Memory Scale has been viewed as an indicator of working memory and visuospatial processing. The current study examined the impact of cognitive impairment and its severity on Spatial Span performance. A neuropsychological battery including Spatial Span was administered to 538 individuals (65-89) who were grouped by consensus into Alzheimer's disease, Vascular Dementia, Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment, Non-Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment and cognitively normal. Increase in level of impairment resulted in a decrease in Spatial Span Total Score. A weak relationship between age and Spatial Span Total Score was found. Spatial Span Forward remains relatively stable regardless of level of impairment. Spatial Span Backward was more sensitive to severity. No significant differences were found between individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease and those with Vascular Dementia suggesting similar deficit patterns in the cognitive abilities measured by the Spatial Span. Mild Cognitive Impairment groups and normals did not differ suggesting visuospatial processes are not affected early in the dementing process.     

Emotion and information search in tactical decision-making: Moderator effects of feedback

Information search during decision-making may be influenced both by selective attention and by the criterion used for ceasing to search. When the items searched are themselves emotive, the affective state of the decision-maker may bias these search processes. If an automatic selective attention bias operates, it may produce mood-congruent effects irrespective of context; e.g., negative affect may focus attention on negative items of information. An alternative possibility, suggested by the mood-as-input model, is that the influence of affect on search may depend on how decision-makers understand their emotions within a given context. The present study tested predictions derived from relevant theories of affective bias, using feedback as a means to generate a context of success or failure. Hundred and sixty participants were required to access positive and negative items of information in choosing between different routes for a search-and-rescue mission. Outcomes of choices were manipulated experimentally, so that in one condition participants received mostly positive feedback, and in a second condition participants received mostly negative feedback. Results showed that the feedback manipulation influenced affect, but there was considerable variation in affective state within each condition. Associations between affect and information search were moderated by feedback condition. For example, positive affect was associated with more frequent sampling of positive information in the negative feedback condition, but the association reversed when feedback was positive. Findings were consistent with the mood-as-input hypothesis, but not with an automatic selective attention bias. Context may influence how the decision-maker interprets their affective state.     

A COMPARISON OF TWO PAIRING PROCEDURES TO ESTABLISH PRAISE AS A REINFORCER

Some individuals with intellectual disabilities do not respond to praise as a reinforcer, which may limit their ability to learn. We evaluated 2 procedures (stimulus pairing and response—stimulus pairing), both of which involved pairing previously neutral praise statements with preferred edible items, to determine their usefulness in establishing praise as a reinforcer. Results of Study 1 indicated that stimulus pairing was not effective in conditioning praise as a reinforcer for 3 of 4 subjects; results were inconclusive for the 4th subject. Results of Study 2 indicated that response—stimulus pairing was effective in conditioning praise as a reinforcer for 4 of 8 subjects. After conditioning, praise also increased the occurrence of additional target responses for these 4 subjects.     

Intra-individual variability in gait and in cognitive performance are not related in the elderly

As humans age, the amount of intra-individual variability (IIV) present in both their gait and their cognitive performance tends to increase. Both gait and cognitive IIV are associated with attentional control and with cerebrovascular disease, suggesting that the IIV in gait and cognitive function should be strongly correlated in the elderly. In this study temporal gait variability was determined from a 60-second period of walking. Cognitive variability was determined from two decision-time tasks assessing inhibition. Despite the presence of substantial amounts of gait and cognitive IIV in 71 elderly individuals, there were no significant correlations between measures of cognitive and gait IIV, suggesting that different factors drive IIV in the motor and cognitive performance of older individuals. These results are not consistent with the common cause theory of aging, which predicts that cognitive and sensorimotor performance should show related declines due to age-related disruption of a common neurological substrate.     

The Many Faces of Malingering and Participant Response Strategies: New Methodologies in the Attachment and Clinical Issues Questionnaire (ACIQ)

Four studies created malingering and response bias scales for a new test battery, the Attachment and Clinical Issues Questionnaire (ACIQ). In the first calibration study, a new approach to identifying fake good and fake bad respondents was outlined. In Study 2, this scale was cross validated in a within-subjects design that also found only weak correlations between the scales of the ACIQ and measures of social desirability. The third study developed a method violator scale (one who responds randomly to the content of the scales due to carelessness, low IQ, etc.). It was tested by Monte Carlo and empirical studies. The fourth study combined the two cross validation studies to offer clear cutoffs for the practitioner. These studies successfully led to the creation of malingering and response bias scales for the ACIQ and also introduced new methods that could be adapted to other instruments.     

Causal Inference from Descriptions of Experimental and Non-Experimental Research: Public Understanding of Correlation-Versus-Causation

The human tendency to conflate correlation with causation has been lamented by various scientists (Kida, 2006; Stanovich, 2009), and vivid examples of it can be found in both the media and peer-reviewed literature. However, there is little systematic data on the extent to which individuals conflate correlation with causation. In three experiments, we presented people with one of four research vignettes generated from the combination of two independent variables: whether the vignette described an experimental or non-experimental design, and whether it revealed a positive or negative association. Upon reading their vignette, participants selected inferences that could be drawn from the findings. Participants drew causal inferences from non-experimental vignettes as often as they did from experimental vignettes, and more frequently for causal statements and directions of association that fit with intuitive notions than for those that did not. We discuss our findings in relation to other biases in human thinking.     

Composite Trauma and Mental Health Diagnosis as Predictors of Lifetime Nonsuicidal Self-Injury History in an Adult Online Sample

Some research indicates that trauma history might be related to nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI), but the exact nature of this relationship is unknown. Therefore, we created and tested a structural equation model for the relationships between composite trauma, NSSI, mental health diagnosis, and gender in a community sample of 296 U.S. adults recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk. Composite trauma and mental health diagnosis were significantly predictive of an NSSI history. The pathway between NSSI and gender was not significant. It is important to consider multiple domains of trauma, in the form of composite lifetime trauma, as risk factors for NSSI.     

Informed consent in the practice of group psychotherapy

Endorsed as part of ethical practice in group psychotherapy by professional organizations, informed consent is a process of communicating essential information about group treatment to patients so that they can make rational decisions about treatment-whether to enter and how to participate. Its benefits as well as necessary precautions are discussed. The design and implementation of the informed consent process for group is discussed in terms of who should obtain it, when it should occur, how it should be communicated, and what information should be considered for inclusion. Specific suggestions are included as well as a discussion of some potential ethical dilemmas.     

Tracking exceptional human capital over two decades

Talent-search participants (286 males, 94 females) scoring in the top 0.01% on cognitive-ability measures were identified before age 13 and tracked over 20 years. Their creative, occupational, and life accomplishments are compared with those of graduate students (299 males, 287 females) enrolled in top-ranked U.S. mathematics, engineering, and physical science programs in 1992 and tracked over 10 years. By their mid-30s, the two groups achieved comparable and exceptional success (e.g., securing top tenure-track positions) and reported high and commensurate career and life satisfaction. College entrance exams administered to intellectually precocious youth uncover extraordinary potential for careers requiring creativity and scientific and technological innovation in the information age.     

EFFECTS OF IMMEDIATE AND DELAYED ERROR CORRECTION ON THE ACQUISITION AND MAINTENANCE OF SIGHT WORDS BY STUDENTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

We compared immediate and delayed error correction during sight-word instruction with 5 students with developmental disabilities. Whole-word error correction immediately followed each error for words in the immediate condition. In the delayed condition, whole-word error correction was provided at the end of each session's three practice rounds. Immediate error correction was superior on each of the four dependent variables.