The sunk cost effect in pigeons and humans

The sunk cost effect is the increased tendency to persist in an endeavor once an investment of money, effort, or time has been made. To date, humans are the only animal in which this effect has been observed unambiguously. We developed a behavior-analytic model of the sunk cost effect to explore the potential for this behavior in pigeons as well as in humans. Each trial started out with a short expected ratio, but on some trials assumed a longer expected ratio part way through the trial. Subjects had the (usually preferable) option of "escaping" the trial if the longer expected ratio had come into effect in order to bring on a new trial that again had a short expected ratio. In Experiments 1 through 3, we manipulated two independent variables that we hypothesized would affect the pigeons' ability to discriminate the increase in the expected ratio within a trial: (a) the presence or absence of stimuli that signal an increase in the expected ratio, and (b) the severity of the increase in the expected ratio. We found that the pigeons were most likely to persist nonoptimally through the longer expected ratios when stimulus changes were absent and when the increase in the expected ratio was less severe. Experiment 4 employed a similar procedure with human subjects that manipulated only the severity of the increase in the expected ratio and found a result similar to that of the pigeon experiment. In Experiment 5, we tested the hypothesis that a particular history of reinforcement would induce pigeons to persist through the longer expected ratios; the results suggested instead that the history of reinforcement caused the pigeons to persist less compared to pigeons that did not have that history.     

Neuropsychological Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and Behavioral Approach System (BAS) Assessment: A Shortened Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire Version (SPSRQ–20)

This research was designed to investigate the items and factor structure of the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ) proposed by Torrubia, Avila, Moltó, and Caseras (2001 Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L. and Lushene, R. E. 1970. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory., Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.  [Google Scholar]), as a measure of the behavioral inhibition system and behavioral activation system in Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory. Recent studies that analyzed this instrument by exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis suggest the need for structural refinement. The Spanish version of the SPSRQ was analyzed by exploratory and confirmatory procedures in calibration (n = 2,102) and validation (n = 746) independent samples. In addition, convergent and discriminant validity was evaluated with the Zuckerman–Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire (Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Teta, Joireman, &; Kraft, 1993 Torrubia, R. and Tobeña, A. 1984. A scale for the assessment of susceptibility to punishment as a measure of anxiety: Preliminary results. Personality and Individual Differences, 5: 371–375. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), the Impulsiveness, Venturesomeness and Empathy Inventory (S. B. G. Eysenck, Pearson, Easting, &; Allsopp, 1985 Eysenck, S. B. G., Pearson, P. R., Easting, G. and Allsopp, F. J. 1985. Age norms for impulsiveness, venturesomeness and empathy in adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 6: 613–619. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) the Neuroticism, Extraversion and Openness Five Factor Inventory (Costa &; McCrae, 1992 Costa, P. T. and McCrae, R. R. 1992. NEO–PI–R professional manual: Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO–PI–R) and NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO–FFI), Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.  [Google Scholar]), and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scales (Barratt, 1985 Ball, S. and Zuckerman, M. 1990. Sensation seeking, Eysenck's personality dimensions and reinforcement sensitivity in concept formation. Personality and Individual Differences, 11: 343–355. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Results showed the robustness of a 20-item structure of the SPSRQ, with satisfactory fit adjustment, validity, and reliability. The findings are discussed in terms of the better functioning and sound psychometric properties of the SPSRQ 20-item version for Gray's personality theory.     

Correlates of spirituality and well-being in a community sample of people living with HIV disease

While the past several years have witnessed an increase in the amount of research examining the spiritual perspectives of people living with HIV/AIDS, this literature is still insufficient to guide the conceptualization and development of spiritually based interventions to improve the life quality of people living with HIV illness. The present study assessed a community sample of 275 persons living with HIV disease to examine relationships among their spirituality, quality of life, perceptions of social support, and coping and adjustment efforts. This study found relationships between social support, active problem solving, life satisfaction, and gender and race with higher levels of spirituality among people living with HIV/AIDS. Mental health providers may need to routinely include assessments of spirituality and religious practices. Caregivers, faith communities, and mental health providers will need to assist in developing supportive environments that enhance the spiritual life and social well-being of people living with HIV infection. Additionally, caregiver training programs will need to focus on spiritual practices as a means of establishing a support system that increases the psychosocial well-being of people living with HIV/AIDS.     

Development of a career-enabler framework within a South African higher education institution

This study developed a preliminary career-enabler framework for use in a higher education setting. A quantitative survey was conducted with a sample of 1392 employees within a higher education institution in South Africa. Structural analysis was performed using exploratory factor analysis. The analysis yielded three enablers with acceptable psychometric properties, namely: self-transcendence, self-enhancement and self-conservation through work motives and needs. Interventions that focus on career-enablers within a higher education institution need to address these three factors.     

Psychometric evaluation of the Basic Traits Inventory in the multilingual South African environment

The objective of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the BTI for all the official language groups in South Africa. Item bias analysis was performed by means of Rasch analysis for a sample of 105 342 respondents with representation of each of the 11 language groups. Reliability values were good for all the language groups and bias was revealed in only 12 of the 193 items (6.2%) through item response modelling. Based on these results, the BTI may be an appropriate measure of personality for all the different language groups in South Africa.     

The Effect of Distributed Practice on Immediate Posttraining,and Long-Term Performance on a Complex Command-and-Control Simulation Task

Using 192 paid participants who trained on a command-and-control microworld simulation, we examined the comparative effectiveness of two distributed practice schedules in enhancing performance at the end of training as well as after an 8-week nonuse period. Longer interstudy intervals (10 hr of practice over 2 weeks) led to higher levels of skill at the end of training and after nonuse than shorter interstudy intervals (10 hr of practice over 1 week). The study begins to address gaps in the skill retention literature by using a cognitively complex task and an extended nonuse interval. The primary implication of our findings is that scheduling longer interstudy practice intervals is a viable means of enhancing immediate posttraining performance and promoting long-term skill retention for cognitively complex tasks.     

The influence of seriousness and contagiousness of disease on emotional reactions to ill persons

Abstract

Extends research on illness cognition by arguing that two major dimensions of illness cognition - seriousness and contagiousness of disease - are responsible for different emotional responses to ill persons, and that the activation of these dimensions is dependent on type of contact with these persons. Using a vignet methodology, nursing students (N = 333) were asked to imagine having different types of contact with patients with diseases differing in seriousness and contagiousness. When participants imagined personal contact with the patient, their anxiety responses and self-efficacy expectations were primarily determined by seriousness of disease. In contrast, when they anticipated close physical contact with the patient, subjects' anxiety reactions and self-efficacy expectations were primarily influenced by contagiousness of disease. Seriousness of disease appeared to be a major determinant of feelings of pity, poweriessness, sadness, and motivation to psychologically support the patient. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Norms on the gender perception of role nouns in Czech,English, French,German, Italian,Norwegian, and Slovak

We collected norms on the gender stereotypicality of an extensive list of role nouns in Czech, English, French, German, Italian, Norwegian, and Slovak, to be used as a basis for the selection of stimulus materials in future studies. We present a Web-based tool (available at https://www.unifr.ch/lcg/) that we developed to collect these norms and that we expect to be useful for other researchers, as well. In essence, we provide (a) gender stereotypicality norms across a number of languages and (b) a tool to facilitate cross-language as well as cross-cultural comparisons when researchers are interested in the investigation of the impact of stereotypicality on the processing of role nouns.     

The MMPI‐2 in chronic psychiatric illness

While previous studies on the MMPI‐2 in patients with schizophrenia and depression have used mixed samples of both early stage and chronic psychiatric patients. Here, it is investigated whether chronicity itself might have a differential effect on the MMPI‐2 profiles of these patients and whether demoralization ‘associated with long‐term illness’ affects the scales of the MMPI‐2. Thirty long‐term patients with schizophrenia, 30 long‐term patients with depression, and 30 healthy participants completed the MMPI‐2. Groups were compared on Clinical Scales and on the Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales. Patients with schizophrenia differed from patients with depression on 14 MMPI‐2 scales and from healthy controls on 10 scales, generally showing mean UT‐scores < 65, indicating a subjective experience of (near) normal functioning. Patients with depression differed from healthy controls on 17 scales mostly with UT‐scores > 65, indicating impaired functioning. Demoralization was higher in patients with depression than in patients with schizophrenia and both psychiatric groups differed from the healthy control group. It is concluded that long‐term patients with depression show impaired functioning and high demoralization, while long‐term patients with schizophrenia surprisingly show near normal functioning and less demoralization.     

The location of the Trait Emotional Intelligence in the Zuckerman's Personality Model space and the role of General Intelligence and social status

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between Emotional Intelligence (EI) measured by the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) and personality measured by the Zuckerman‐Kuhlman‐Aluja Personality Questionnaire (ZKA‐PQ) with the purpose of analyzing similarities and differences of both psychological constructs. Additionally, we studied the relationship among EI, personality, General Intelligence (GI) and a social position index (SPI). Results showed that the ZKA‐PQ predicts the 66% (facets) and the 64% (factors) of the TEIQue. High scores in EI correlated negatively with Neuroticism (r: –0.66) and Aggressiveness (r: –0.27); and positively with Extraversion (r: 0.62). Oblique factorial analyses demonstrated that TEIQue scales were located basically in the Neuroticism and Extraversion factors. The SPI and GI no loaded in any factor. These findings showed that EI is a not a distinct construct of personality and it cannot be isolated in the ZKA‐PQ personality space. GI is related with the SPI (r: 0.26), and EI correlated with GI (r: 0.18) and SPI (r: 0.16). Nevertheless, we found differences between GI high groups and the TEIQue and ZKA‐PQ factors when controlling age and sex. These findings are discussed in the individual differences context.