Self-Efficacy and Training for Strength in Adolescent Girls1

To test the hypothesis that a gain in self-efficacy about strength training could generalize to other areas of life and positively affect self-esteem, untrained adolescent female volunteers were tested before and after participation in 12 weeks of strength training and compared with nonactive and mildly active volunteer controls. Pretest-posttest results for the treatment group showed improvement in strength (+40%), weight training efficacy, confrontation efficacy, and total efficacy summed over 11 tasks. There were related positive changes in perceived physical ability, physical self-presentation confidence, and general effectiveness in life. The treatment group improved posttest over controls on all these variables; controls did not change or worsened. These findings offer preliminary support that weight training for strength can improve confidence about a variety of life tasks in adolescent girls and could provide the basis for new modalities of therapy for low self-esteem.     

The role of social categorization and perceived source credibility in minority influence

This study was conducted in order to compare the influence of ingroup and outgroup minorities and to assess the role of perceived source credibility in minority influence. The subjects were exposed to the simultaneous majority/minority influence paradigm. Ingroup minorities were more influential than outgroup minorities. Subjects moved toward the minority position in private and toward the majority position in public when the minority was represented by members of the ingroup. On private responses subjects were not affected by outgroup minorities who argued for abortion, and they became more positive toward abortion when outgroup minorities opposed abortion. Final &, ingroup minorities were perceived as more credible than outgroup minorities and greater credibility of minority source was associated with greater attitude change toward the minority position. The superior influence of ingroup minorities held when controlling for source credibility. Overall, the results were highly supportive of social identity theory.     

Facial Recognition: Weapon Effect and Attentional Focus1

The present experiment investigated the hypothesis that a weapon can serve as a cue that will interfere with the eyewitness’ encoding of the weapon-holder's facial features. Extrapolating from Easterbrook's cue utilization hypothesis, an interaction between arousal and attentional focus was predicted. White female college students played a bogus visual discrimination game in which they saw a total of 24 target photos: six black targets holding a weapon in their hands, six white targets holding weapons, six black targets holding objects other than weapons, and six white targets holding objects other than weapons. Subjects were randomly assigned to view the photos while experiencing white noise and threat of electric shock (high arousal) or without such factors (low arousal). Subjects were also randomly assigned to one of four attentional focus levels: face focus, hand focus, background focus, and free focus. A signal detection-type task provided an assessment of identification accuracy. The data revealed a significant “weapon effect”: Subjects were better at identifying photos of targets who were not holding a weapon than they were at identifying photos of targets who were holding a weapon. Focus of attention and race of target also significantly affected recognition accuracy, as did arousal in one of two analyses. No support was found, however, for the predicted interaction between arousal and attentional focus. Finally, subjects showed a strong criterion shift according to the race of target; they were much more likely to make a “seen before” response to other-race (black) faces than to same-race faces.     

The gender model revisited: Differences in the management styles of men and women

Qualitative data from 22 women and 18 men managers and their secretaries were analyzed to provide insights into gender differences in managerial styles. Traditional management style topologies, based largely on studies of men's behaviors, were called into question. Using an approach that allowed other topologies to emerge from the data, the respondents perceived that women were both task and people oriented, while men appeared image engrossed and autonomy invested. Respondents reported a strong preference for their gender-appropriate model and misunderstanding, even exasperation, with those using the alternative approach. The existence of such different models, especially if unrecognized, would place women at a disadvantage, since their success as managers is usually assessed by men who are likely to have a strong preference for the male-typed approach. The findings also suggest possible modifications to existing measures of managerial styles, particularly a consideration of image-engrossed approaches. Future research is suggested to further explore and confirm these findings.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Society for Women Sociologists in Washington, D.C., August 1985. A small portion of the research was supported by the Committee on Research and Creative Activity, University of Wisconsin—Parkside. Marian Swoboda provided helpful comments, as did several anonymous reviewers.     

Gender roles,marital status,and urban-rural migration

The impact of gender and marital status on migration decision making and satisfaction with the relocation decision six months following the move, are examined. Previous research in the literature concerning gender role, quality of life, and environmental sociology provides the conceptual framework for the following hypotheses: (a) women are more likely to migrate for quality-of-life, rather than economic, reasons; (b) single migrants are more likely to experience satisfaction with the move than are couples; (c) among couples, satisfaction with the move will be greatest when the decision to move is an egalitarian one; and (d) migrants who relocate for economic reasons will be dissatisfied with the move if their economic aspirations are not satisfied. Data are from the first interview with a random probability sample of 390 recent migrants into the Gallatin Valley of Montana. The sample was identified through new telephone listings, and a combined questionnaire/interview format was employed. Log-linear analyses were utilized to test the hypothesized relationships between marital status, the migration decision-making process, subsequent satisfaction with the decision to move, and income change as a result of the move. Hypotheses (a) and (b) above were supported. The data did not support the hypothesized relationship between egalitarian decision making and subsequent family satisfaction with the move. There also was no support for the expectation that migrants seeking economic goals would experience lower levels of satisfaction if these economic aspirations were unmet. The implications of these findings are discussed and alternative hypotheses are suggested.     

Interpersonal Mediation of Perceived Crowding and Control in Residential Dyads and Triads

The role of interpersonal relationships in mediating the experience of crowding and loss of personal control was investigated in dormitory environments housing two or three students in bedroom units. A combination of survey, observational, and laboratory techniques was used to explore the formation of 2-person coalitions in tripled housing and subsequent problems created for the third, "left-out" roommate. Data strongly suggested that the aversiveness and loss of control previously associated with tripled residential settings may be more plausibly attributed to the inherent instability of 3-person groups and the loss of control associated with being excluded from group activities. In most of the tripled rooms studied, 2-person coalitions formed and most of the crowding and negative affect reported were expressed by the third roommate, who felt left out by the others. Residents of doubled rooms and members of coalitions in tripled rooms did not differ from one another on most dimensions.     

Indications for selecting family or individual therapy

Indications for either individual therapy or family therapy as treatments of first choice are identified at the initial family assessment.
A family approach is suggested in (1) scapegoating systems where the symptom is essential to the family homeostasis; (2) enmeshed families where communications are confused and diffuse; (3) paranoid-schizoid families where the family denies the symptoms and (4) families in a current acute shared crisis.
Individual treatment is indicated when (1) the patient has suffered traumatic separations; (2) separate help is asked for; (3) the therapist considers individuation necessary and (4) unusual life experience. Clinical examples are given.     

Sex-role acquisition: In search of the elephant

Social learning and cognitive-developmental theories of sex-role acquisition have yet to receive clear and unequivocal research support. While it is apparent that sex-typing of interests and behaviors does occur in early childhood, we are at a loss to explain the mechanisms involved. A model of sex roles as rules is presented, which attempts to analyze the acquisition of sex roles as similar to the process of pattern recognition in vision and speech. Social learning theory can help to account for how the child acquires the distinctive features of sex-role patterns, while cognitive-developmental theory points to the categories that are essential in this process.The generous support of the Grant Foundation is gratefully acknowledged.