The effect of layout and pacing on learning from diagrams with unnecessary text

Although the presentation of extraneous (i.e., irrelevant or unnecessary) information hinders learning, it is unclear whether and how layout and pacing influence this effect. In two experiments, participants learned how the heart functions using four different layouts: a diagram presented without unnecessary text (diagram only), with unnecessary text separated from the diagram (separated) or integrated into the diagram (integrated), or with separated unnecessary text and the instruction to integrate (integration instruction). In Experiment 1, study time was self‐paced for half of the participants and system paced for the other half. There were no effects of layout and of pacing on learning, although system pacing was more effortful than self‐pacing. In Experiment 2, which was system paced and employed eye tracking, the integrated condition showed worse learning outcomes than the separated condition. Moreover, in the integrated condition, participants made more integration attempts between the unnecessary text and the diagram than in the separated condition.     

The effects of nodality on the formation of equivalence classes

A four-member equivalence class (A → B → C → D) can be formed by training AB, BC, and CD. The nodal stimuli, B and C, mediate all of the derivative (transitive and equivalence) relations in the class. The derivative relations AC, CA, BD, and DB are separated by one node, whereas AD and DA are separated by two nodes. How do the number of nodes that separate the stimuli in a derivative relation influence the induction of stimulus control exerted by that relation? Seven college students learned two four-member classes made up of nonsense syllables. After training, all derivative relations were presented repeatedly without informative feedback. Stimulus control exerted by each derivative relation was assessed concurrently. For the 7 subjects, control exerted by the derivative relations increased gradually with repeated presentations. With 6 of the 7 subjects, the one-node relations exerted more control than the two-node relations during the process. However, the disparity between the one- and two-node relations decreased with repeated presentations. Eventually, all derivative relations exerted complete control. The control exerted by derivative relations during induction was inversely related to the number of nodes separating the terms in the derivative relations. These results demonstrate that nodal distance is a determinant of the relatedness of stimuli in equivalence classes. The findings are discussed in terms of remote association, semantic memory networks, and the study of transitive inference.     

An evaluation of differential reinforcement of other behavior,differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior,and restitution for the management of aggressive behaviors

A 46 year old institutionalized retarded woman was referred for treatment because of frequent verbal abuse and physically aggressive behaviors. A multicomponent behavioral intervention consisting of differential reinforcement of other behaviors, differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviors, and restitution was implemented. A sequential withdrawal design was used in order to evaluate the effects of components of the original intervention, and to provide a measure of response maintenance. Results indicated a marked decrease in verbal abuse and elimination of physical aggression. Verbal abuse recurred when the restitution procedure was withdrawn. The relative efficacy of the different interventions is discussed with respect to the behavioral management of aggression. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Filling the Gap on Developmental Change: Tests of a Dynamic Field Theory of Spatial Cognition

In early childhood, there is a developmental transition in spatial memory biases. Before the transition, children's memory responses are biased toward the midline of a space, while after the transition responses are biased away from midline. The Dynamic Field Theory (DFT) posits that changes in neural interaction and changes in how children perceive frames of reference underlie the transition. Here, we tested a prediction of the DFT that children younger than the transitional age would show the more advanced developmental pattern when tested with a perceptually salient midline axis. Four age groups (3 years, 6 months; 3 years, 8 months; 4 years; and 5 years) were tested at targets near midline. As predicted, children's responses were biased away from midline.     

The Association Between Childhood Maltreatment and Coping Strategies: The Indirect Effect Through Attachment

Maladaptive coping strategies represent a potentially treatable component of psychopathologies associated with childhood abuse and neglect. Coping strategies are relatively stable constructs that may be viewed as trait-like behavioral manifestations of larger, albeit less accessible, intra- and interpersonal processes, such as activation of the attachment system. The authors investigated a potential mediational pathway from childhood maltreatment (in the form of physical and emotional abuse experiences) to coping strategies developed in emerging adulthood through attachment organization in a sample of undergraduate psychology research participants at a public Midwestern university (N = 225). Avoidant attachment patterns helped to explain the relationship between increased instances of childhood maltreatment and a decreased use of adaptive coping strategies. Further, both anxious and avoidant attachment mediated the relationship between childhood maltreatment and an increased use of maladaptive coping. By utilizing an attachment theory–informed approach as an explanatory guide, researchers and clinicians may be better able to conceptualize, study, and treat complex cases by understanding the underlying relationships between childhood maltreatment, attachment, and coping.     

The Appeal to Expert Opinion: Quantitative Support for a Bayesian Network Approach

The appeal to expert opinion is an argument form that uses the verdict of an expert to support a position or hypothesis. A previous scheme‐based treatment of the argument form is formalized within a Bayesian network that is able to capture the critical aspects of the argument form, including the central considerations of the expert's expertise and trustworthiness. We propose this as an appropriate normative framework for the argument form, enabling the development and testing of quantitative predictions as to how people evaluate this argument, suggesting that such an approach might be beneficial to argumentation research generally. We subsequently present two experiments as an example of the potential for future research in this vein, demonstrating that participants' quantitative ratings of the convincingness of a proposition that has been supported with an appeal to expert opinion were broadly consistent with the predictions of the Bayesian model.