The development of contrast constancy

The mature visual system possesses mechanisms that enable invariant perception of the contrast of an object and its features as the object undergoes changes in distance. This phenomenon, which has been called contrast constancy, obtains at suprathreshold contrasts only. Some models of contrast constancy assume the presence of narrowband spatial-frequency channels. An implication of M.S. Banks, B.R. Stephens, and E.E. Hartmann (1985, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 40, 501-527) is that contrast constancy should not be observed at 6 weeks but may be observed at 12 weeks. We examined this implication by investigating the development of contrast constancy in 6- and 12-week-old infants. Two sine wave gratings, differing in spatial frequency by a factor of 3, were presented side-by-side. The contrast of one grating was varied in order to estimate the contrast at which preference for the two gratings was equal. The equal preference points for 6-week-olds were predictable from their contrast thresholds. The 12-week-olds' equal preference points for low-contrast stimuli were predictable from their contrast thresholds, but those for intermediate and high-contrast stimuli were not. Thus, if one accepts the assumption that equal preference in infants is analogous to apparent contrast matches in adults, these data imply that contrast constancy is observed at 12 weeks but not 6 weeks. The perceptual consequences of this developmental transition are discussed.     

Feature frequency effects in recognition memory

Rare words are usually better recognized than common words, a finding in recognition memory known as the word-frequency effect. Some theories predict the word-frequency effect because they assume that rare words consist of more distinctive features than do common words (e.g., Shiffrin & Steyvers's, 1997, REM theory). In this study, recognition memory was tested for words that vary in the commonness of their orthographic features, and we found that recognition was best for words made up of primarily rare letters. In addition, a mirror effect was observed: Words with rare letters had a higher hit rate and a lower false-alarm rate than did words with common letters. We also found that normative word frequency affects recognition independently of letter frequency. Therefore, the distinctiveness of a word's orthographic features is one, but not the only, factor necessary to explain the word-frequency effect.     

Measuring Associations of the Department of Veterans Affairs' Suicide Prevention Campaign on the Use of Crisis Support Services

Campaigns have become popular in public health approaches to suicide prevention; however, limited empirical investigation of their impact on behavior has been conducted. To address this gap, utilization patterns of crisis support services associated with the Department of Veterans Affairs' Veterans Crisis Line (VCL) suicide prevention campaign were examined. Daily call data for the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline, VCL, and 1‐800‐SUICIDE were modeled using a novel semi‐varying coefficient method. Analyses reveal significant increases in call volume to both targeted and broad resources during the campaign. Findings underscore the need for further research to refine measurement of the effects of these suicide prevention efforts.     

Unseen disadvantage: how American universities' focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students

American universities increasingly admit first-generation college students whose parents do not have 4-year degrees. Once admitted, these students tend to struggle academically, compared with continuing-generation students--students who have at least 1 parent with a 4-year degree. We propose a cultural mismatch theory that identifies 1 important source of this social class achievement gap. Four studies test the hypothesis that first-generation students underperform because interdependent norms from their mostly working-class backgrounds constitute a mismatch with middle-class independent norms prevalent in universities. First, assessing university cultural norms, surveys of university administrators revealed that American universities focus primarily on norms of independence. Second, identifying the hypothesized cultural mismatch, a longitudinal survey revealed that universities' focus on independence does not match first-generation students' relatively interdependent motives for attending college and that this cultural mismatch is associated with lower grades. Finally, 2 experiments at both private and public universities created a match or mismatch for first-generation students and examined the performance consequences. Together these studies revealed that representing the university culture in terms of independence (i.e., paving one's own paths) rendered academic tasks difficult and, thereby, undermined first-generation students' performance. Conversely, representing the university culture in terms of interdependence (i.e., being part of a community) reduced this sense of difficulty and eliminated the performance gap without adverse consequences for continuing-generation students. These studies address the urgent need to recognize cultural obstacles that contribute to the social class achievement gap and to develop interventions to address them.     

The Happiness-Enhancing Activities and Positive Practices Inventory (HAPPI): Development and Validation

Whilst research indicates that happiness-enhancing activities can boost happiness, the measurement of intentional happiness-enhancing activities has thus far been inadequate. This paper describes the development and initial empirical testing of the Happiness-enhancing Activities and Positive Practices Inventory (HAPPI), a self-report inventory designed to measure older adults’ happiness-enhancing activities. An exploratory factor analysis of the HAPPI responses from a population sample of 2,313 older adults identified four factors: self-concordant work, personal recreation and people, spiritual and thought-related, and goal-focused activities. Results demonstrated evidence of reliability, convergent and discriminant validity and support for the predictive utility of the HAPPI. The subscales derived from the factor analysis correlated as expected with measures of subjective well-being and other relevant measures, and showed moderately high subscale intercorrelations and satisfactory internal consistency. The results provide a basis for continuing to develop and clarify the types of intentional activities people engage in. Differences between our results and studies with younger adults are discussed, including possible age-related differences in the types of happiness-enhancing activities engaged in and the potential influence of these activities on happiness. The HAPPI is a relatively brief, easily administered inventory that shows promise as a useful tool for the measurement of happiness-enhancing activities and can be employed to follow cohorts to determine which domains demonstrate the greatest contribution to happiness and other well-being outcomes, which have implications for social policy, education and intervention programmes to enhance well-being.     

Neuropsychological impairment as a consequence of football (soccer) play and football heading: A preliminary analysis and report on school students (13–16 years)

Footballers run the risk of incurring mild head injury from a variety of sources, including the intentional use of the head to play the ball, known as heading. This paper presents a preliminary exploratory analysis of data collected to examine whether cumulative incidence of mild head injury, or cumulative heading frequency, are related to neuropsychological functioning in male adolescent footballers. In a quasi-experimental cross-sectional design, neuropsychological test scores of school team footballers were compared with those of similarly aged rugby players and noncontact sport players. Cumulative mild head injury incidence was estimated using self-reports, and cumulative heading was estimated using a combination of observation and self-reports. No participants had sustained a head injury within 3 months of testing. There was no relationship between head injury and neuropsychological performance, and there were no decrements in either the footballers or the rugby players in comparison with the noncontact sport players. Within the footballers, cumulative heading did not predict any of the neuropsychological test scores. These findings indicate the absence of neuropsychological impairment arising due to cumulative mild head injury incidence, or cumulative heading. Although these null findings may be reassuring to players, parents, and football organizers, we stress that they are preliminary. Further data is being collected from the same populations to provide more reliable effect estimates.     

Behavioral predictors of blood pressure variation in hypertensives and normotensives

This study examined the relative impact of five behavioral factors--activity, posture, location, social involvement, and tension--on the 24-hr blood pressure (BP) variability of 21 normotensives, 18 borderline hypertensives, and 18 sustained essential hypertensives. Multiple-regression analyses indicated that within each diagnostic group, activity accounted for more variance in BP variability than any other behavioral dimension. For each behavioral dimension examined, the magnitude of the relationship with BP was generally greater for the normotensives than for both hypertensive groups. In contrast, variation due to individuals was a better predictor of BP variability for the two hypertensive groups than for the normotensive group. Number of months hypertensive and use of antihypertensive medication were related to BP variability for the sustained hypertensive group. Findings have implications for the use of ambulatory BP monitors and interpretation of resulting data.     

Simultaneity,Sequentiality, and Speed: Organizational Messages About Multiple‐Task Completion

Workplace norms for task completion increasingly value speed and the ability to accomplish multiple tasks at once. This study situates this popularized issue of multitasking within the context of chronemics scholarship by addressing related issues of simultaneity, sequentiality, and speed. Ultimately, we consider 2 multiple‐task completion strategies discussed in the literature on polychronic behavior, dovetailing (or sequentially accomplishing tasks) and simultaneously accomplishing tasks. Focus group and experimental findings support the existence of both simultaneous and sequential multitasking styles. Additionally, each is linked to varying perceptions of work pace, workload, and availability outside of work hours. The developed measurement scale offers a communication‐focused theoretical contribution to multitasking concepts. Implications for these findings and future directions are also discussed.     

System-of-Care Practice Review Scores as Predictors of Behavioral Symptomatology and Functional Impairment

The longitudinal comparison study of the national evaluation of the Comprehensive Community Mental Health Services for Children and Their Families Program assesses factors in service delivery systems that may shape the impact of systems of care. We evaluated the extent to which services embodying the principles of a system of care, as measured by the System-of-Care Practice Review (SOCPR), affect clinical outcomes for children being served in federally-funded systems of care and matched comparison communities. The participants included 75 children and families selected for participation in the SOCPR. Results indicated that experience of services embodying system-of-care principles at a high level was associated with lower symptom and impairment scores one year after entry into services. Children in systems of care were rated to have experienced high levels of system-of-care principles implemented within their services, and their symptom severity and functional impairment did not vary as a function of their experiences. Children in matched comparison communities had more variable rated experiences of system-of-care principles within their services, and their symptom severity and functional impairment decreased as their experiences of the principles increased.