The role of information about "convention," "design," and "goal" in representing artificial kinds

In this chapter, we have considered the nature and development of our capacities for the representation of artificial kinds. We have presented a range of evidence collected using varying methods and from our own laboratories and those of others that speaks to the question of the kinds of information that might be central to knowledge of artifacts and their functions in human semantic memory. One key argument here has been that despite the fact that information about shared convention has been argued to play an important role in understanding of the "proper" uses of artifacts, just as it does in the case of the use of linguistic symbols within language communities, there are important differences between the two cases, and indeed across development, decisions about categories and functions dissociate. We have argued here that the nonarbitrary relationship between the material kind and mechanical structure of artifacts and the functions that can be supported undercuts the force of information about convention as important to determining proper artifact function. Shared convention appears less important for determining this facet of our semantic memory for artifacts than it does in supporting the proper relationship between linguistic symbols and the categories of artifact to which they refer.     

Domesticated dogs’ (Canis familiaris) use of the solidity principle

Organisms must often make predictions about the trajectories of moving objects. However, often these objects become hidden. To later locate such objects, the organism must maintain a representation of the object in memory and generate an expectation about where it will later appear. We explored adult dogs’ knowledge and use of the solidity principle (that one solid object cannot pass through another solid object) by evaluating search behavior. Subjects watched as a treat rolled down an inclined tube into a box. The box either did or did not contain a solid wall dividing it in half. To find the treat, subjects had to modify their search behavior based on the presence or absence of the wall, which either did or did not block the treat’s trajectory. Dogs correctly searched the near location when the barrier was present and the far location when the barrier was absent. They displayed this behavior from the first trial, as well as performed correctly when trial types were intermingled. These results suggest that dogs direct their searches in accordance with the solidity principle.     

Reasoning deficits among illicit drug users are associated with aspects of cannabis use

Deficits in deductive reasoning have been observed among ecstasy/polydrug users. The present study seeks to investigate dose-related effects of specific drugs and whether these vary with the cognitive demands of the task. One hundred and five participants (mean age 21.33, SD 3.14; 77 females, 28 males) attempted to generate solutions for eight one-model syllogisms and one syllogism for which there was no valid conclusion. All of the one-model syllogisms generated at least one valid conclusion and six generated two valid conclusions. In these six cases, one of the conclusions was classified as common and the other as non-common. The number of valid common inferences was negatively associated with the aspects of short-term cannabis use and with measures of IQ. The outcomes observed were more than simple post-intoxication effects since cannabis use in the 10 days immediately before testing was unrelated to reasoning performance. Following adjustment for multiple comparisons, the number of non-common valid inferences was not significantly associated with any of the drug-use measures. Recent cannabis use appears to impair the processes associated with generating valid common inferences while not affecting the production of non-common inferences. It is possible, therefore, that the two types of inference may recruit different executive resources, which may differ in their susceptibility to cannabis-related effects.     

The reading grade level of common measures in child and adolescent clinical psychology

The purpose of this article is to provide easily accessible readability information for 49 parent- and 35 child- and adolescent-report measures commonly used by clinicians and researchers. There is a great deal of variability in reading ability required across measures. The majority of parent-report measures (65%) required reading ability above the 8th grade level. The average child-/adolescent-report measure required reading ability above the 6th grade level. Given the potential contribution of readability to a measure's reliability, validity, and overall utility, examining and accounting for readability should be a more common practice in test construction and administration.     

The hippocampal contribution to “Learning and memory”: Information retrieval and comparison

The effects of limbic system after-discharges and ablation upon learning were investigated in 113 adult cats. Learning tasks consisted of active and passive avoidance and pattern and size discrimination. Limbic system after-discharges interfered with performance in learned-avoidance and size-discrimination paradigms. Discharges implicating the ventral hippocampus were the most effective in producing performance decrements; dorsal hippocampal discharges were least effective. The greater the involvement of brain-stem structures by propagated activity, the greater the decrement. There was no motor impairment. Size-discrimination response is impaired to a greater degree than shockavoidance response during limbic discharges. The degree of impairment is in part a function of the type of sensory stimulus and response contingency used. Hippocampal ablation resulted in impairment (response latency changes) in both active and passive avoidance tasks. Acquisition was not impaired. Hippocampal ablation facilitated the development of a stronger position habit in the pattern-discrimination task. Learning deficits which occurred were attributed to impairment of retrieval and comparator mechanisms of neural function. Results support the argument that defective retrieval and/or comparator mechanisms may account for the impaired learning of a diversity of tasks, from simple to complex.     

Tonotypic cortical representation in man (case report)

Cortical stimulation—evoked perception of tones differing in pitch suggests that the perception of pitch may be discretely organized in the human auditory parakoniocortex. Findings, obtained from a neurosurgical patient undergoing temporal lobectomy, are discussed with reference to anatomical and functional considerations of the auditory parakoniocortex in humans. These tonotypic findings are potentially significant since, as previously reported (see references in Discussion section), auditory sensations have not been analyzed in relation to perceptual categories of pitch. Address correspondence to: Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233.     

The Milan method—a preliminary critique*

The elegance of the techniques developed by the Milan group has tended to blind family therapists to the many problems inherent in their approach. A close reading of their work uncovers many ethical and political issues which need to be addressed. This paper is a preliminary attempt to develop a critique of the group's method which recapitulates some of the most alienating aspects of the traditional medical model. It will concentrate solely on a critical reading of Paradox and Counterparadox and will not seek to come to terms with the more recent evolution of the Milan school.