Noise and levels of processing

Three experiments investigated the view that people make more use of relatively surface levels of coding when noise is present, neglecting semantic levels of analysis. In experiment 1 subjects classified words in different ways and then recalled as many as possible. Subjects who received the noise conditions in the order noise-quiet recalled more words than those who received the conditions in the order quiet-noise, but noise failed to interact with the nature of the classification conditions although the usual advantage of the semantic condition over letter-case and rhyme conditions was obtained. Experiment 2 failed to show any effect of noise on physical-name match differences when letter pairs were presented simultaneously. In experiment 3 a delay was introduced between the letters; the noise-quiet subjects were then faster on the physical match than the name match whereas the slower quiet-noise subjects showed the reverse pattern. This could represent an instance of asymmetric transfer from noise to quiet or it could be due to speed per se.Overall, these results argue against a general explanation of noise effects in terms of a passive shift in levels of processing.     

ACQUISITION,DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS CONTROL,AND RETENTION OF INCREASES/DECREASES IN BLOOD PRESSURE OF NORMOTENSIVE HUMAN SUBJECTS1

The aims of this study of 24 normotensive subjects were: to compare a free-operant with a discrete-trials training format; to determine the most effective training procedure by comparing instrumental conditioning with instructional set and a control; to see if both increases and decreases in blood pressure could be brought under discriminative control, and to examine the maintenance of acquired self-control of blood pressure. A 2 × 3 design was employed in which two trial formats (free operant and discrete trials) were factorially compared with three training conditions (instrumental conditioning, instructional set, and control). Instrumental conditioning was found superior to both the instructional set and control conditions in producing increases and decreases in mean diastolic blood pressure. The free-operant format led to a greater degree of learned BP control in that subjects were able to increase and decrease their blood pressure by 10% to 15% of basal value and to maintain the blood-pressure operant after contingent auditory feedback/reinforcement was removed. Training was discontinued when subjects in the other five groups failed to reach criterion after 10 consecutive acquisition sessions.     

Perceived probability and evaluation of balance,agreement, and attraction: Toward a solution of conflicting results

Fifty-four subjects rated sixteen hypothetical situations on four evaluative and four probability scales. The situations were of the P-O-X type, consisting of two persons and an issue. A2×2×2×2 factorial design was used to test the relative importance of attitude (P to × relation), issue (marijuana or premarital sex), agreement (P to × and O to × relations), attraction (P to O relation), and balance (agreement × attraction interaction) on the evaluation and probability variables. As predicted from a critical review of past research on balance theory, balance was the main determinant of perceived probability. Attraction was the main determinant of evalution. In light of a review of past balance research and of the present data, we propose to restrict the balance hypothesis to cognitive variables, i.e., expectancy and perceived probability. In addition, support was obtained for the hypothesis that the more dogmatic a person is, the more frequently he will perceive balanced relationships as occurring and the more positively he will evaluate balanced situations.     

Methodological issues in judgment and decision-making research: Concurrent verbal protocol validity and simultaneous traces of process

This paper examines two dimensions of concurrent verbal protocol validity. First, whether verbalization affects process and outcome (reactivity) was examined by comparing concurrent verbal protocol traces with those from a computer search process tracing method, the latter being a complete trace of information acquisition from experimental materials. Earlier findings that verbalization affects time were confirmed. However, verbalization did not affect amount and pattern of acquisition or accuracy of judgments. Second, whether concurrent verbal protocols are complete was examined by comparing concurrent verbal protocol and computer traces that were simultaneously obtained in a treatment in which subjects verbalized as they acquired information from the computer. The verbal traces less completely captured information acquisition behavior than computer search. This suggests that, although concurrent verbal protocols provide greater insight into decision behavior than computer search, the latter is a more reliable information-acquisition trace. Thus, if information acquisition is of primary interest and if computer search activities can be naturally integrated into performing the primary task, computer search is preferred to concurrent verbal protocols. However, if information use or retrieval from long-term memory is of primary interest, concurrent verbal protocols are preferred to computer search. Finally, this paper examined whether the simultaneous use of concurrent verbal protocols and computer search provides traces of information acquisition and use that are as complete as when each method is independently applied. Although computer search tended to limit subjects verbalizations of evaluative operators, this effect may be eliminated by practice on the computer prior to collecting data.     

Cognitive-behavior therapy with children: Developmental reconsiderations

The present paper reconsiders the role of developmental theory in the use of cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) with children. The implication of Piaget's theory of cognitive development and Selman's social perspectivetaking theory are reviewed briefly in regard to CBT. It is argued that the assessment of both logical/analytical thought structures and social perspective-taking abilities may be useful in planning a course of CBT with children.Andrew Kinney, Ph.D., is an Associate Fellow at the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy, New York City. He is an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Mohawk Valley Community College, Utica, NY, and an Adjunct Lecturer of psychology at the State University of New York Institute of Technology at Utica/Rome, NY.     

Culturally grounded strategies for suicide and alcohol risk prevention delivered by rural Alaska Native communities: A dynamic wait-listed design evaluation of the Qungasvik intervention

We examined the effectiveness of the Qungasvik (Tools for Life) intervention in enhancing protective factors as a universal suicide and alcohol prevention strategy for young people ages 12−18 living in highly affected rural Alaska Native communities. Four communities were assigned to immediate intervention or to a dynamic wait list. Outcomes were analyzed for 239 young people at four time points over two years of community intervention. Outcomes assessed two ultimate variable protective factors buffering suicide and alcohol risk, and three intermediate variable protective factors at the individual, family, and community level. Dose dependent intervention effects were associated with growth in ultimate but not intermediate variables. This evaluation of the Qungasvik intervention provides support for the effectiveness of its Indigenous strategies for suicide and alcohol misuse prevention in this rural Alaska Native setting. Though findings did not provide support for a theory of change where growth in ultimate variables is occasioned through effects on intermediate variables, research designs focused on young people who enter intervention at lower levels of preexisting protection hold promise for better understanding of intervention change processes. The Qungasvik intervention is responsive to an acute public health need for effective rural Alaska Native suicide and alcohol risk prevention strategies.     

IDENTITY AND THE BRAIN: THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF OUR SELF

This article reviews the neuroscientific understanding of the self and personal identity, focusing on various elements of inclusivity and exclusivity as well as engaging religious and spiritual perspectives. We will also consider how the identity is comprised of biological, social, and ideological or spiritual aspects, and how they are interconnected. We will consider how the brain helps us to construct and maintain our representation of the self and what happens when we have self-transcendent experiences. Such an evaluation will have implications for understanding the intersection between consciousness and the self. This information will be helpful from both the psychological and spiritual perspective for understanding human identity.